Veganism is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated abolitionist philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals.[9] A follower of either the diet or the philosophy is known as a vegan (pronounced VEE-gn).

Distinctions are sometimes made between several categories of veganism. Dietary vegans refrain from ingesting animal products. This means avoiding not only meat but also egg and dairy products and other animal-derived foodstuffs. Some dietary vegans choose to wear clothing that includes animal products (for example, leather or wool).[10] The term ethical vegan is often applied to those who extend the philosophy beyond diet into other areas of their lives. This philosophy means opposing the use of animal products for any purpose.[n 1]Environmental veganism refers to avoiding animal products on the premise that harvesting or industrial farming of animals is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.[16]

The term vegan was coined in 1944 by Donald Watson when he co-founded the Vegan Society in England. At first this meant "non-dairy vegetarian" and later "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals".[17] Interest in veganism increased in the 2010s; more vegan shops opened, and vegan options became increasingly available in more supermarkets and restaurants in many countries.[18]

Vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fiber, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and phytochemicals, and lower in dietary energy, saturated fat, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12.[n 2] Well-planned vegan diets can reduce the risk of some types of chronic disease including heart disease.[20] Vegan diets are regarded as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle by the American Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council, and Dietitians of Canada.[21] Because uncontaminated plant foods do not provide vitamin B12 (which is produced by microorganisms such as bacteria), researchers agree that vegans should eat B12-fortified foods or take a supplement.

The origin of the English term vegetarian is unknown.[23] The earliest known use is attributed to the actress Fanny Kemble, writing around 1839 in Georgia in the United States.[n 4] The practice can be traced to Pythagoras in 6th century BCE Greece. Greek philosophers Empedocles and Theophrastus were vegetarians, as were Seneca the Younger, Ovid, Plutarch, Plotinus, Porphyry,[26] and the Arab poet Al-Maarri.[27] Their arguments were based on health, the transmigration of souls, animal welfare, and the view, espoused by Porphyry in De Abstinentia ab Esu Animalium ("On Abstinence from Animal Food"), that if humans deserve justice, so do animals.[26]

Vegetarianism established itself as a significant movement in 19th century England and the United States.[28] There were ovo-lacto vegetarians, who avoided meat but ate eggs and dairy; pescetarians, who in addition ate fish; and dietary vegans, then called strict vegetarians, who ate no meat, nor animal related products.[29] In 1813 the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley published A Vindication of Natural Diet, advocating "abstinence from animal food and spirituous liquors," and in 1815 William Lambe, a London physician, claimed that a vegan diet could cure a range of diseases from cancer and tuberculosis to acne.[30]Sylvester Graham's meatless Graham dietmostly fruit, vegetables, water, and bread made at home with stoneground flourbecame popular as a supposed health remedy in the 1830s in the United States.[31]

Several vegan communities were established. Amos Bronson Alcott, father of novelist Louisa May Alcott, opened the Temple School in 1834 and Fruitlands in 1844 in Massachusetts.[32] In England in 1838 James Pierrepont Greaves founded the Concordium, a vegan community at Alcott House on Ham Common.[3][33] In 1843 members of Alcott House created the British and Foreign Society for the Promotion of Humanity and Abstinence from Animal Food, led by Sophia Chichester.[34]

Alcott House helped establish the British Vegetarian Society, which held its first meeting in 1847 in Ramsgate, Kent.[35]:64 An article in the society's magazine in 1851 discussing alternatives to shoe leather suggests the presence of vegans within the membership who rejected animal use entirely.[36] The first known vegan cookbook, Rupert H. Wheldon's No Animal Food: Two Essays and 100 Recipes, was published in London in 1910. A vegetarian society newsletter in 1912 asked vegetarians to write in concerning egg and milk consumption, and reported on the arguments, concluding that the use of these products could not be justified.[37]

During a visit to London in 1931, Mahatma Gandhiwho had joined the Vegetarian Society's executive committee when he lived in London from 1888 to 1891gave a speech to the society arguing that it ought to promote a meat-free diet as a matter of ethics, not health.[38][40] The consumption of eggs and dairy had become something of an issue within the society. There were regular discussions in its newsletter, the Vegetarian Messenger, about the treatment of cows and hens; it appears from the correspondence that many opponents of veganism came from within the vegetarian community.[8][41] Lacto-vegetarians typically did not oppose veganism on moral grounds, and acknowledged the ethical consistency of the vegan position. However, they regarded a vegan diet as impractical, and were concerned that it might be an impediment to spreading vegetarianism if vegans found themselves unable to participate in social circles where no vegan food might be available. This became the predominant view of the Vegetarian Society.[37]

In August 1944 several members asked that a section of the society's newsletter be devoted to non-dairy vegetarianism. When the request was turned down, Donald Watson, secretary of the Leicester Vegetarian Society, set up a new quarterly newsletter, Vegan News, in November 1944, priced tuppence. He chose the word vegan himself.[7][n 6] The first edition attracted over 100 letters, including from George Bernard Shaw, who resolved to give up eggs and dairy.[8] The six members of the new Vegan Society held their first meeting in early November at the Attic Club, 144 High Holborn, London.[n 7]World Vegan Day is held every 1 November to mark the society's creation.[44]

Vegan News changed its name to The Vegan in November 1945, by which time it had 500 subscribers.[45] It published recipes, health news and a "vegan trade list" of animal-free products such as Colgate toothpaste, Kiwi shoe polish, Dawson & Owen stationery and Gloy glue.[46] Vegan books appeared, including Vegan Recipes by Fay K. Henderson, and Aids to a Vegan Diet for Children by Kathleen V. Mayo.[47] The Vegan Society soon made clear that it rejected the use of animals for any purpose, not only as food, and in 1951 it defined veganism as "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals."[48][49] In 1956 Leslie Cross, the society's vice-president, founded the Plantmilk Society to explore commercial soy milk production. As Plantmilk Ltd (later Plamil Foods) it began production in 1965 of one of the first widely distributed soy milks in the Western world.[50]

The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Catherine Nimmo and Rubin Abramowitz in California, who distributed Watson's newsletter.[51] In 1960 H. Jay Dinshah founded the American Vegan Society (AVS), linking veganism to the concept of ahimsa, "non-harming" in Sanskrit.[52][53] According to Joanne Stepaniak, the word vegan was first published independently in 1962 by the Oxford Illustrated Dictionary, defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese or milk."[54]

In the 1960s a countercultural food movement emerged in the United States around concerns about diet, the environment and a distrust of food producers, leading to increasing interest in organic gardening and vegetarianism.[55]Frances Moore Lapp's Diet for a Small Planet (1971) sold over three million copies and suggested "getting off the top of the food chain."[56]

From the late 1970s a group of scientists in the US, including physicians Dean Ornish, Caldwell Esselstyn, Neal D. Barnard, John A. McDougall, Michael Greger and biochemist T. Colin Campbell, argued that diets based on animal fat and animal protein, such as the Western pattern diet, were detrimental to health.[57]

The following decades saw a series of books recommend vegan or vegetarian diets, including McDougall's The McDougall Plan (1983), John Robbins's Diet for a New America (1987), which associated meat eating with environmental damage, and Dr. Dean Ornish's Program for Reversing Heart Disease (1990).[58] In 2003 two major North American dietitians' associations approved the vegan diet as safe for all life stages.[59] This was followed by the film Earthlings (2005), Campbell's The China Study (2005), and Rory Freedman and Kim Barnouin's Skinny Bitch (2005), as well as Jonathan Safran Foer's Eating Animals (2009) and the film Forks over Knives (2011).[60]

The vegan diet became increasingly mainstream in the Western world in the 2010s.[62][18] Chain restaurants began marking vegan items on their menus, and supermarkets improved their selection of vegan processed food.[63] The global mock-meats market increased by 18% between 2005 and 2010,[64] and in the US by 8% between 2012 and 2015 to $553 million a year.[65] In the UK the plant milk market increased by 155% in two years, from 36 million litres in 2011 to 92 million in 2013.[66] The European Parliament defined the meaning of vegan for food labels in 2010, in force as of 2015.[61][67]

Celebrities, athletes and politicians adopted vegan diets, some seriously, some part-time.[68] In recent years, some in America have promoted veganism as "glamorous" and trendy, to counter the image of self-deprivation projected by vegan straight edges and animal rights activists.[69] The idea of the "flexi-vegan" gained currency; in his book VB6 (2013), New York Times food columnist Mark Bittman recommended sticking to a vegan diet before 6 pm.[70]De Vegetarische Slager, the first known vegetarian butcher shop, selling mock meats, opened in the Netherlands in 2010.[64][71] In 2011 Europe's first vegan supermarkets appeared in Germany Vegilicious in Dortmund[72] and Veganz in Berlin and elsewhere.[70] In 2013 the Oktoberfest in Munich, traditionally a meat-heavy affair, offered vegan dishes for the first time in its 200-year history.[73] America's first known vegan butcher's, the Herbivorous Butcher, opened in Minneapolis in 2016.[65][74]

In Israel, interest in veganism surged in recent years, with an estimated 5% of Israelis identifying as vegan in 2015, approximately double the figure in 2010.[75] The phenomenon has been attributed to a 2012 visit by abolitionist activist Gary Yourofsky, who frequently compares the treatment of animals to the Holocaust.[76][77] Following a protest in 2015, the Israeli army was forced to make special provisions for vegan soldiers, including non-leather boots and wool-free berets.[78] Veganism also became popular among Israeli Arabs, leading to collaborations between Jewish and Arab animal rights activists.[79]

Increasing interest in veganism has prompted criticism and backlash from non-vegans. Critics of veganism have questioned the evolutionary legitimacy and health effects of a vegan diet, and pointed to longstanding philosophical traditions which held that man is superior to the other animals.[80] Celebrity chef Anthony Bourdain once compared vegans to the militant group Hezbollah.[81]

The total number of vegans around the world is unknown. Research indicates that the global percentage of vegans is small but growing, especially in wealthier countries.[82]

Vegans do not eat beef, pork, poultry, fowl, game, seafood, eggs, dairy, or any other animal products, such as gelatin. Plant-based eaters, who may identify as dietary vegans might use animal products in clothing (as leather, wool, and silk), toiletries and similar.[111] Veganism extends not only to matters of food but also to the wearing or using of animal products. Vegans reject the commodification of animals.[112] The British Vegan Society will certify a product only if it is free of animal involvement as far as possible and practical, including animal testing.[113]

Philosopher Gary Steiner argues that it is not possible to be entirely vegan, because animal use and products are "deeply and imperceptibly woven into the fabric of human society."[114] Animal products in common use include albumen, allantoin, beeswax, blood, bone char, bone china, carmine, casein, castoreum, cochineal, elastin, emu oil, gelatin, isinglass, keratin, lactic acid, lanolin, lard, rennet, retinol, shellac, squalene, tallow/sodium tallowate, whey and yellow grease. Some of these are chemical compounds which can be derived from animal products, from plants, or from petrochemicals. Allantoin, lactic acid, retinol and squalene, for example, can be vegan. However, these products and their origins are not always included in the list of ingredients.[115]

Vegans will not buy woollen jumpers, silk scarves, leather shoes, bedding that contains goose down or duck feathers, ordinary soap (usually made of animal fat), or cosmetics that contain animal products. They avoid certain vaccines; the flu vaccine, for example, is usually grown in hens' eggs, although an effective alternative, Flublok, is widely available in the United States.[116] Non-vegan items acquired before they became vegan might be donated to charity or used until worn out. Some vegan clothes, in particular leather alternatives, are made of petroleum-based products, which has triggered criticism because of the environmental damage involved in their production.[117]

Some vegetarians argue that the restrictiveness of a vegan lifestyle is impractical, and that vegetarianism is a better goal, even though veganism is the fastest growing movement at the moment and it's becoming easier and easier to find vegan alternatives. [118][119]

The main difference between a vegan and vegetarian diet is that vegans exclude eggs and dairy products. Ethical vegans avoid them on the premise that their production causes animal suffering and premature death. In egg production, most male chicks are culled because they do not lay eggs.[120] To obtain milk from dairy cattle, cows are made pregnant to induce lactation; they are kept pregnant and lactating for three to seven years, then slaughtered. Female calves are separated from their mothers within 24 hours of birth, and fed milk replacer to retain the cow's milk for human consumption. Male calves are slaughtered at birth, sent for veal production, or reared for beef.[121]

Vegan groups disagree about insect products.[122] Neither the Vegan Society nor the American Vegan Society considers honey, silk, and other insect products as suitable for vegans,[123] while Vegan Action and Vegan Outreach view it as a matter of personal choice.[124]Agave nectar is a popular vegan alternative to honey.[125]

Vegan diets are based on grains and other seeds, legumes (particularly beans), fruits, vegetables, edible mushrooms, and nuts.[126]Meat analogues (mock meats) based on soybeans (tofu), or wheat-based seitan/gluten, are a common source of plant protein, usually in the form of vegetarian sausage, mince, and veggie burgers.[citation needed]

Dishes based on soybeans are a staple of vegan diets because soybeans are a complete protein; this means they contain all the essential amino acids for humans and can be relied upon entirely for protein intake.[n 8] They are consumed most often in the form of soy milk and tofu (bean curd), which is soy milk mixed with a coagulant. Tofu comes in a variety of textures, depending on water content, from firm, medium firm, and extra firm for stews and stir-fries; to soft or silken for salad dressings, desserts, and shakes. Soy is also eaten in the form of tempeh, seitan, and texturized vegetable protein (TVP); also known as textured soy protein (TSP), the latter is often used in pasta sauces.[128]

Plant milkssuch as soy milk, almond milk, grain milks (oat milk and rice milk), hemp milk, and coconut milkare used in place of cows' or goats' milk.[n 9] Soy milk provides around 7g of protein per cup (240mL or 8floz), compared with 8g of protein per cup of cow's milk. Almond milk is lower in dietary energy, carbohydrates and protein.[134] Soy milk should not be used as a replacement for breast milk for babies. Babies who are not breastfed may be fed commercial infant formula, normally based on cows' milk or soy. The latter is known as soy-based infant formula or SBIF.[135]

Butter can be replaced with a vegan alternative such as Earth Balance's.[136] Vegan (egg-free) mayonnaise brands include Vegenaise, Nayonaise, Miso Mayo, Just Mayo, Mindful Mayo, and Plamil's Egg-Free Mayo.[137]

Vegan cheeses such as Chreese, Daiya, Sheese, Teese and Tofutti, are made from soy, nuts and tapioca, and can replace the meltability of dairy cheese.[138]Nutritional yeast is a common substitute for the taste of cheese in vegan recipes.[139] Several recipe books describe how to make cheese substitutes at home;[140] one recipe for vegan brie combines cashew nuts, soy yogurt and coconut oil.[141] In 2014 Oakland's Counter Culture Labs and Sunnyvale's BioCurious produced vegan cheese from casein extracted from genetically modified yeast.[142]

Commercial egg substitutes, such as Bob's Red Mill egg replacer and Ener-G egg replacer, are available for cooking and baking.[143] The protein in eggs thickens when heated and binds other ingredients together.[144] Flaxseeds will do the same: replace each egg with one tablespoon of flaxseed meal mixed with three tablespoons of water.[143] For pancakes a tablespoon of baking powder can be used instead of eggs.[145] Other ingredients include (to replace one egg): one tablespoon of soy flour and one tablespoon of water; a quarter cup of mashed bananas, mashed prunes or apple sauce; or in batter two tablespoons of white flour, half a tablespoon of vegetable oil, two tablespoons of water, and half a tablespoon of baking powder.[144] Silken (soft) tofu and mashed potato can also be used.[146] Bean brine, known as aquafaba, can be used to replace egg whites in meringues, ice cream, and baking.[citation needed]

Since 1991 the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine (PCRM) has recommended a no-cholesterol, low-fat vegan diet based on what they call the New Four Food Groups: fruit, legumes, grains and vegetables. Legumes include peas, beans, lentils and peanuts.[147]

PCRM recommends three or more servings a day of fruit (at least one of which is high in vitamin C, such as citrus fruit, melon or strawberries); two or more of protein-rich legumes (such as soybeans, which can be consumed as soy milk, tofu or tempeh); five or more of whole grains (such as corn, barley, rice and wheat, in products such as bread and tortillas); and four or more of vegetables (dark-green leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark-yellow and orange such as carrots or sweet potatoes).[147]

The New Four Food Groups was created as an alternative to the Four Food Groups meat, milk, vegetables and fruit, and cereal and breads recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) from 1956 until 1992.[148] In 1992 the USDA replaced this with the food guide pyramid and in 2011 with MyPlate, which is consistent with a vegan diet. MyPlate is divided into five groups: grains, vegetables, fruits, dairy (or calcium-fortified soymilk), and protein. The protein includes meat, poultry, seafood, beans and peas, eggs, processed soy products, nuts and seeds.[n 10] In the UK the National Health Service recommends the Eatwell Plate, also with five groups and consistent with a vegan diet: fruit and vegetables; potatoes, bread and other starchy foods; dairy or non-dairy alternatives; meat, fish, eggs, or beans for protein; and fat and sugar.[149]

Proteins are composed of amino acids. Vegans obtain all their protein from plants, omnivores usually a third, and ovo-lacto vegetarians half.[150] Sources of plant protein include legumes such as soy beans (consumed as tofu, tempeh, texturized vegetable protein, soy milk and edamame), peas, peanuts, black beans and chickpeas (the latter often eaten as hummus); grains such as quinoa (pronounced keenwa), brown rice, corn, barley, bulgur and wheat (the latter eaten as bread and seitan); and nuts and seeds. Combinations that contain high amounts of all the essential amino acids include rice and beans, corn and beans, and hummus and whole-wheat pita.[151]

Soy beans and quinoa are known as complete proteins because they each contain all the essential amino acids in amounts that meet or exceed human requirements,[152] although analyses disagree on whether soy protein is slightly deficient in the sulfur-containing amino acids methionine and cystine, leading to reported PDCAAS values between 0.92 (slightly incomplete) and 1.00 (truly complete).[153] Mangels et al. write that consuming the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of protein (0.8 g/kg body weight) in the form of soy will meet the biologic requirement for amino acids.[127] In 2012 the United States Department of Agriculture ruled that soy protein (tofu) may replace meat protein in the National School Lunch Program.[154]

The American Dietetic Association said in 2009 that a variety of plant foods consumed over the course of a day can provide all the essential amino acids for healthy adults, which means that protein combining in the same meal may not be necessary.[155] Mangels et al. write that there is little reason to advise vegans to increase their protein intake, but erring on the side of caution, they recommend a 25% increase over the RDA for adults, to 1.0 gram of protein per kilogram of body weight.[156]

Vitamin B12 is a bacterial product needed for cell division, the formation and maturation of red blood cells, the synthesis of DNA, and normal nerve function. A deficiency can lead to megaloblastic anaemia and nerve damage.[158][n 11] Vegans are unable in most cases to obtain B12 from their diet.[n 12] Vegetarians are also at risk, as are older people and those with certain medical conditions.[161][162] A 2013 study found that "vegetarians develop B12 depletion or deficiency regardless of demographic characteristics, place of residency, age, or type of vegetarian diet. Vegetarians should thus take preventive measures to ensure adequate intake of this vitamin, including regular consumption of supplements containing B12."

Increased hygiene in the food supply is probably the cause of B12 depletion from plant-based diets.[164][n 13] Neither plants nor animals make B12; it is produced by microorganisms, such as bacteria, fungi, and algae. Plants not washed properly may contain B12 from bacteria in the soil, often from faeces, and drinking water may be similarly contaminated, particularly in the developing world. Animals obtain it by eating contaminated plants, from their internaal bacteria, other animals, or their own faeces, and become sources of B12 if eaten themselves.[158][n 14] Intensively farmed animals are often given B12 supplements or injections, particularly pigs and poultry, because when raised indoors they have no access to plants and less access to their own faeces.[166] Bacteria in the human digestive tract produce B12, but most is expelled in the faeces. The mouth is another source, but in small amounts and possibly analogue (not biologically active).[167][n 15]

Japanese researchers say that around 4 g of dried purple nori, an edible seaweed, supplies the adult RDA of 2.4 mcg (g) of B12. Tempeh, a fermented soybean food, is cited as another source, perhaps because of contamination during production.[157][n 16] One tablespoon of Red Star Vegetarian Support Formula nutritional yeast delivers the adult RDA of B12.[169][n 17] There is no gold standard for assessing B12 status and few studies exist of long-term vegans who have not used supplements or fortified foods.[171] Studies of vegans not taking supplements or eating fortified food have found low B12 levels and clinical signs of deficiency; low B12 levels without signs of a deficiency; and neither.[172][173] Nevertheless, the consensus among researchers is that vegans and vegetarians should use supplements, or eat B12-fortified foods such as plant milk or breakfast cereal.[161][174] Mangels et al. say: "It is likely that all Western vegans consuming unsupplemented diets will eventually develop vitamin B12 deficiency, although it may take decades for this to occur."[175] No animal products are involved in the production of B12 supplements.[158]

Calcium is needed to maintain bone health and for several metabolic functions, including muscle function, vascular contraction and vasodilation, nerve transmission, intracellular signalling and hormonal secretion. 99% of the body's calcium is stored in the bones and teeth.[176][177]:3574

Vegans are advised to eat three servings a day of a high-calcium food, such as fortified plant milk, fortified tofu, almonds or hazelnuts, and to take a supplement as necessary.[21] Plant sources include broccoli, turnip, bok choy and kale; the bioavailability of calcium in spinach is poor.[176] Vegans should make sure they consume enough vitamin D, which is needed for calcium absorption.[178]

A 2007 report based on the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition, which began in 1993, suggested that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over meat eaters and vegetarians, likely because of lower dietary calcium intake. The study found that vegans consuming at least 525mg of calcium daily have a risk of fractures similar to that of other groups.[n 18][181] A 2009 study found the bone mineral density (BMD) of vegans was 94% that of omnivores, but deemed the difference clinically insignificant.[182][n 19]

Vitamin D (calciferol) is needed for several functions, including calcium absorption, enabling mineralization of bone, and bone growth. Without it bones can become thin and brittle; together with calcium it offers protection against osteoporosis. Vitamin D is produced in the body when ultraviolet rays from the sun hit the skin; outdoor exposure is needed because UVB radiation does not penetrate glass. It is present in salmon, tuna, mackerel and cod liver oil, with small amounts in cheese, egg yolks and beef liver, and in some mushrooms.[184]

Most vegan diets contain little or no vitamin D without fortified food. People with little sun exposure may need supplements. The extent to which sun exposure is sufficient depends on the season, time of day, cloud and smog cover, skin melanin content, and whether sunscreen is worn. According to the National Institutes of Health, most people can obtain and store sufficient vitamin D from sunlight in the spring, summer and fall, even in the far north. They report that some researchers recommend 530 minutes of sun exposure without sunscreen between 10 am and 3 pm, at least twice a week. Tanning beds emitting 26 per cent UVB radiation have a similar effect, though tanning is inadvisable.[184][185]

Vitamin D comes in two forms. Cholecalciferol (D3) is synthesized in the skin after exposure to the sun, or consumed in the form of animal products; when produced industrially it is taken from lanolin in sheep's wool. Ergocalciferol (D2) is derived from ergosterol from UV-exposed mushrooms or yeast and is suitable for vegans. Conflicting studies have suggested that the two forms may or may not be bioequivalent.[186] According to researchers from the Institute of Medicine, the differences between D2 and D3 do not affect metabolism, both function as prohormones, and when activated exhibit identical responses in the body.[187]

In some cases, iron and zinc status of vegans may also be of concern because of the limited bioavailability of these minerals.[189] There are concerns about the bioavailability of iron from plant foods, assumed by some researchers to be 515% compared to 18% from a nonvegetarian diet.[190]Iron deficiency anaemia is found as often in nonvegetarians as in vegetarians, though studies have shown vegetarians' iron stores to be lower.[191]

Mangels et al. write that, because of the lower bioavailability of iron from plant sources, the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences established a separate RDA for vegetarians and vegans of 14mg for vegetarian men and postmenopausal women, and 33mg for premenopausal women not using oral contraceptives.[192] Supplements should be used with caution after consulting a physician, because iron can accumulate in the body and cause damage to organs. This is particularly true of anyone with hemochromatosis, a relatively common condition that can remain undiagnosed.[193]

High-iron vegan foods include soy beans, black-strap molasses, black beans, lentils, chickpeas, spinach, tempeh, tofu, and lima beans.[194][195] Iron absorption can be enhanced by eating a source of vitamin C at the same time,[196] such as half a cup of cauliflower or five fluid ounces of orange juice. Coffee and some herbal teas can inhibit iron absorption, as can spices that contain tannins (turmeric, coriander, chillies, and tamarind).[195]

Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid, is found in leafy green vegetables and nuts, and in vegetable oils such as canola and flaxseed oil.[197] Vegan Outreach suggests vegans take 11.5g (14 teaspoon) of flaxseed oil (also known as linseed oil) daily, and use oils containing low amounts of omega-6 fatty acids, such as olive, canola, avocado, or peanut oil.[198] Vegans may use DHA supplements derived from algae instead of fish oil;[199] a 2011 meta-analysis concluded that algal oil may be an effective replacement for fish oil.[200]

Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain and Ireland, dairy products are relied upon for iodine delivery because of low levels in the soil.[201] Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or regular consumption of seaweeds, such as kelp.[202][203]

Veganism appears to provide health benefits, including a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity, and heart disease.[20] There is evidence that a vegan diet aids weight loss more effectively than a vegetarian or non-vegetarian diet, particularly in the short term.[204] A 2016 systematic review found that a vegan diet was associated with a significant reduction in cancer risk, although only in a small number of studies.[205]

According to nutritionist Winston Craig, writing in The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition in 2009, vegan diets tend to be higher in dietary fibre, magnesium, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, iron, and phytochemicals, and lower in dietary energy, saturated fat, cholesterol, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, calcium, zinc, and vitamin B12.[n 2] Craig wrote that vegans tend to be thinner, with lower serum cholesterol and lower blood pressure. Factors associated with a vegan diet being considered cancer-protective include an increased intake of fruits and vegetables; absence of meat; sources of vegan protein, including soy protein; and typically lower body mass index (BMI).[19]

Eliminating all animal products increases the risk of deficiencies of vitamins B12 and D, calcium, and omega-3 fatty acids. Craig advised vegans to eat fortified foods or take supplements, and warned that iron and zinc may be problematic because of limited bioavailability. Vegans might be at risk of low bone mineral density without supplements.[19]

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada indicate that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, but that its adoption may serve to camouflage a disorder rather than cause one. The Australian National Health and Medical Research Council similarly recognizes a well-planned vegan diet as viable for any age.[21] As of 2011 the German Society for Nutrition did not recommend a vegan diet and cautioned against it for babies and children, the pregnant and the elderly.[206] The British National Health Service's Eatwell Plate allows for an entirely plant-based diet,[149] as does the United States Department of Agriculture's (USDA) MyPlate.[n 10] The USDA allows tofu to replace meat in the National School Lunch Program.[154]

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada consider well-planned vegetarian and vegan diets "appropriate for individuals during all stages of the lifecycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, and adolescence, and for athletes."[208] The German Society for Nutrition cautioned against a vegan diet for pregnant women, babies, and children as of 2011.[206] The Canadian Pediatric Society regards well-planned vegan diets as appropriate "at all stages of fetal, infant, child, and adolescent growth"; attention should be given to nutrient intake, particularly protein, vitamins B12 and D, essential fatty acids, iron, zinc, and calcium.[209]

According to a 2015 systematic review, there is little evidence available about vegetarian and vegan diets during pregnancy, and a lack of randomized studies meant that the effects of diet could not be distinguished from confounding factors. It concluded: "Within these limits, vegan-vegetarian diets may be considered safe in pregnancy, provided that attention is paid to vitamin and trace element requirements."[210] A daily source of vitamin B12 is important for pregnant and lactating vegans, as is vitamin D if there are concerns about low sun exposure.[n 20] Researchers have reported cases of vitamin B12 deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers that were linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children.[212][213] A doctor or registered dietitian should be consulted about taking supplements during pregnancy.[214]

Raw veganism is a diet that combines the concepts of veganism and raw foodism. It excludes all food and products of animal origin, as well as food cooked at a temperature above 48C (118F). A raw vegan diet includes raw vegetables and fruits, nuts and nut pastes, grain and legume sprouts, seeds, plant oils, sea vegetables, herbs, mushrooms, and fresh juices. There are many different variations of the diet, including fruitarianism, juicearianism, and sproutarianism.[citation needed]

Ethical vegans will not use toiletries or household cleaners that contain animal products. Animal ingredients are ubiquitous because they are cheap. After animals are slaughtered for meat, the leftovers are put through the rendering process, and some of that material, particularly the fat, ends up in toiletries. Common ingredients include tallow in soap, and glycerine (derived from collagen), used as a lubricant and humectant in haircare products, moisturizers, shaving foam, soap and toothpaste; there is a plant-based form but it is usually animal-based.[215]

Lanolin from sheep's wool is found in lip balm and moisturizers. Stearic acid is a common ingredient in face creams, shaving foam and shampoos; as with glycerine, it can be plant-based but is usually animal-derived. Lactic acid, an alpha-hydroxy acid derived from animal milk, is used in moisturizers, as is allantoin, from the comfrey plant or cows' urine, in shampoos, moisturizers and toothpaste.[215]Carmine from scale insects, such as the female cochineal, is used in food and cosmetics to produce red and pink shades.[216]

The British Vegan Society's sunflower logo and PETA's bunny logo mean the product is certified vegan, which includes no animal testing. The leaping-bunny logo signals no animal testing, but it might not be vegan.[217] The Vegan Society criteria for vegan certification are that the product contain no animal products, and that neither the finished item nor its ingredients have been tested on animals by, or on behalf of, the manufacturer or by anyone over whom the manufacturer has control. Its website contains a list of certified products,[218] as does Australia's Choose Cruelty Free website.[219]Animal Ingredients A to Z (2004) and Veganissimo A to Z (2013) list which ingredients might be animal-derived.

Beauty Without Cruelty, founded as a charity in 1959, was one of the earliest manufacturers and certifiers of vegan toiletries.[220] Several international companies stock large vegan ranges, including Kiss My Face, MuLondon and Lush.[221]

Ethical vegans avoid clothing that incorporates silk, wool (including lambswool, shearling, cashmere, and angora), fur, feathers, or leather, snakeskin, or any other kind of skin or animal product. Most leather clothing is made from cows' and calves' skins, but the skin of sheep, goats, horses, and pigs is also used. Less common skins include those from kangaroos, elephants, zebras, seals, crocodile, and deer. Vegans regard the purchase of leather, particularly from cows, as financial support for the meat industry.[222] They wear shoes, belts, jackets and carry handbags made of hemp, linen, cotton, canvas, polyester, synthetic leather (known as pleather), rubber, or vinyl. Manufacture of the petroleum-based materials is harmful to the environment.[223]

Ethical veganism is based on opposition to speciesism, the assignment of value to individuals on the basis of species membership alone. Divisions within animal rights theory include rights-based (deontological) and utilitarian (consequentialist) approaches, as well as protectionism, which pursues improved conditions for animals, and abolitionism, which seeks to end human ownership of non-humans. Abolitionists argue that protectionism serves only to make the public feel that animal use can be morally unproblematic (the "happy meat" position). Rights-theorists tend to be abolitionist[citation needed] and utilitarians protectionist.[224][225]

Law professor Gary Francione, a rights theorist and prominent abolitionist, argues that all sentient beings should have the right not to be treated as property, and that adopting veganism must be the baseline for anyone who believes that non-humans have intrinsic moral value.[226][n 21] Pursuing improved welfare conditions is like campaigning for "conscientious rapists" who will rape without beating, he argues.[225] Philosopher Tom Regan, also a rights theorist, argues that animals possess value as "subjects-of-a-life," because they have beliefs, desires, memory and the ability to initiate action in pursuit of goals. The right of subjects-of-a-life not to be harmed can be overridden by other moral principles, but pleasure, convenience, and the economic interests of farmers are not weighty enough.[228]

On the other hand, Katherine Wayne argues that while the property status of animals should be abolished, and veganism is a moral obligation in present circumstances, there could be conditions under which it may be morally appropriate to collect, consume, sell, or otherwise use animal products, though not to slaughter animals. She writes that relationships of use between asymmetrically dependent parties are essential to the functioning of cooperative society, and are therefore desirable.[229]

Philosopher Peter Singer, a prominent protectionist and utilitarian, argues that there is no moral or logical justification for failing to count animal suffering as a consequence when making decisions, and that killing animals should be rejected unless necessary for survival.[230] Despite this, he writes that "[e]thical thinking can be sensitive to circumstances," and that he is "not too concerned about trivial infractions."[231]

An argument proposed by Bruce Friedrich, also a protectionist, holds that strict adherence to veganism harms animals, because it focuses on personal purity, rather than encouraging people to give up whatever animal products they can.[232] For Francione, this is similar to arguing that, because human-rights abuses can never be eliminated, we should not defend human rights in situations we control. By failing to ask a server whether something contains animal products, we reinforce that the moral rights of animals are a matter of convenience, he argues. He concludes from this that the protectionist position fails on its own consequentialist terms.[233]

Another view is that ethical veganism remains "subtly human-centred." Philosopher Val Plumwood saw ethical veganism, which she called "Ontological Veganism," as an example of human/nature dualism in that it views humanity as separate from the rest of nature; ethical vegans want to admit non-humans into the category that deserves special protection, rather than recognize the "ecological embeddedness" of all.[234] Plumwood maintained that animal food may be an "unnecessary evil" from the perspective of the consumer who "draws on the whole planet for nutritional needs," and she strongly opposed factory farming, but for anyone relying on a much smaller ecosystem, it is very difficult or impossible to be vegan, she argued.[235]

Environmental vegans focus on conservation, rejecting the use of animal products on the premise that fishing, hunting, trapping and farming, particularly factory farming, are environmentally unsustainable.[16] Around 30% of the planet's surface is devoted to the livestock sector. In the United States ten billion land animals are killed every year for human consumption, and in 2005 48 billion birds were killed globally.[236][237] A 2006 UN report, Livestock's Long Shadow, concluded that livestock farming (mostly of cows, chickens and pigs) affects the air, land, soil, water, biodiversity, and climate change.[238]

Paul Watson of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society called pigs and chicken "major aquatic predators", and said that all Sea Shepherd ships are vegan for environmental reasons.[16] In 1999 222 million tonnes of meat were produced globally.[239] Livestock consumed 1,174 million tonnes of food in 2002, including 7.6 million tonnes of fishmeal and 670 million tonnes of cereals, one-third of the global cereal harvest.[240] In 2001 they consumed 45 million tonnes of roots and vegetables and 17 million tonnes of pulses.[241] As of 2006 the livestock industry accounted for 9% of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, 37% of methane, 65% of nitrous oxide, and 68% of ammonia; livestock waste emitted 30 million tonnes of ammonia a year, which is involved in the production of acid rain.[242][243] Greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry. Plant agriculture such as rice cultivation can also cause environmental problems.[244]

Richard Oppenlander, a lecturer, author and environmental activist, believes the adoption of a vegan diet would significantly cut down on global warming,[246] reduce the prevalence of cancer, diabetes and other life-threatening illnesses,[247] and prevent loss of biodiversity.[248] He cites the destructive effect livestock farming has had on the rainforest, with 70% of all deforested land in the Amazon being used to raise cattle. [249]

Comparative studies of the impact and sustainability of different diets concluded that the vegan diet has a low land-use footprint, albeit requiring high quality croplands.[250] A 2010 UN report, Assessing the Environmental Impacts of Consumption and Production, argued that animal products "in general require more resources and cause higher emissions than plant-based alternatives."[251]:80 It argued that a move away from animal products is needed to reduce environmental damage.[n 22][252]

Steven Davis, a professor of animal science, argued in 2003 that, applying the least-harm principle, human beings should convert to a ruminant-based rather than plant-based diet, because of the animals killed by crop production.[253] Based on a finding that wood-mouse populations fell from 25 to five per hectare after harvest, Davis estimated that 10 animals per hectare are killed from crop farming every year. If all 120,000,000 acres (490,000km2) of cropland in the continental United States were used for a vegan diet, 500 million animals would die, but if half the land were used for ruminant pasture the number would be 900,000. This assumes that people switch to beef, lamb and dairy products from the eight billion poultry killed each year.[253]

Philosopher Andy Lamey argued that, to include nonhuman deaths in the moral cost of veganism, Davis must also include human deaths caused by his proposed diet.[254] Economist Gaverick Matheny wrote that Davis had miscalculated the animal deaths, basing his figures on land area rather than per consumer. In addition, by focusing on numbers rather than welfare, and by excluding factory-farmed animals, Davis had equated lives with lives worth living. His argument ignored the harm done to farmed animals: pain from branding, dehorning and castration, confinement, transport without food or water to a slaughterhouse, and a frightening death. Matheny argued that (strict) vegetarianism probably allows for a greater number of animals with lives worth living.[236]

Vegetarian and vegan diets may be referred to as plant-based and vegan diets as entirely plant-based.[15]

The next use was by the editor of The Healthian, a journal published by Alcott House, in April 1942: "To tell a man, who is in the stocks for a given fault, that he cannot be so confined for such an offence, is ridiculous enough; but not more so than to tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature, and contrary to reason."[25]

A 1960s study reported that villagers in Iran eating little or no animal protein, living near animal manure and eating vegetables grown in human manure had normal B12 levels.[167]

National Institutes of Health, 2013: "In the Oxford cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition, bone fracture risk was similar in meat eaters, fish eaters and vegetarians, but higher in vegans, likely due to their lower mean calcium intake."[180]

Donald Watson, Vegan News, first issue, November 1944.

David N. Cassuto, "Owning What You Eat: The Discourse of Food," in J. Ronald Engel, Laura Westra, Klaus Bosselman (eds.), Democracy, Ecological Integrity and International Law, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009.

Debra K. Moser, Barbara Riegel, Cardiac Nursing, Elsevier Health Sciences, 2008, p.158.

Matthew Cole, "Veganism," in Margaret Puskar-Pasewicz (ed.), Cultural Encyclopedia of Vegetarianism, ABC-Clio, 2010 (pp.239241), p.241.

"Vegan diets becoming more popular, more mainstream", Associated Press, 6 January 2011.

Monica Dinu, Rosanna Abbate, Gian Franco Gensini, Alessandro Casini & Francesco Sofi, Vegetarian, vegan diets and multiple health outcomes: a systematic review with meta-analysis of observational studies, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, February 2016: "From the analysis of the studies available in the literature we were able to determine that a significant protection versus ischemic heart disease and cancer is present in vegetarian subjects, but that this protection is not significant for overall mortality, cardio and cerebrovascular diseases. In addition, vegan diet seems to be associated with a lower rate of cancer incidence, but this result must be interpreted with caution, because of the very small sample size and the low number of studies evaluating this aspect."doi:10.1080/10408398.2016.1138447 PMID 26853923

Marian Glick-Bauer, Ming-Chin Yeh, "The Health Advantage of a Vegan Diet: Exploring the Gut Microbiota Connection", Nutrients, 6(11), November 2014, pp.48224838. doi:10.3390/nu6114822 PMID 25365383

"Halt heart disease with a plant-based, oil-free diet", Harvard Heart Letter, 25(2), 1 October 2014, p.6. PMID 26027024

Gabrielle Turner-McGrievy, Metria Harris, "Key elements of plant-based diets associated with reduced risk of metabolic syndrome," Current Diabetes Reports, 14(9), August 2014, p.524. doi:10.1007/s11892-014-0524-y PMID 25084991

Lap Tai Le, Joan Sabat, "Beyond Meatless, the Health Effects of Vegan Diets: Findings from the Adventist Cohorts", Nutrients, 6(6), June 2014, pp.21312147: "In summary, vegetarians have consistently shown to have lower risks for cardiometabolic outcomes and some cancers across all three prospective cohorts of Adventists. Beyond meatless diets, further avoidance of eggs and dairy products may offer a mild additional benefit. Compared to lacto-ovo-vegetarian diets, vegan diets seem to provide some added protection against obesity, hypertension, type-2 diabetes; and cardiovascular mortality. In general, the protective effects of vegetarian diets are stronger in men than in women." doi:10.3390/nu6062131 PMID 24871675

Philip J. Tuso, et al., "Nutritional Update for Physicians: Plant-Based Diets", The Permanente Journal, 17(2), Spring 2013, pp.6166: "The major benefits for patients who decide to start a plant-based diet [vegetarian or vegan] are the possibility of reducing the number of medications they take to treat a variety of chronic conditions, lower body weight, decreased risk of cancer, and a reduction in their risk of death from ischemic heart disease." doi:10.7812/TPP/12-085 PMID 23704846

Winston J. Craig, "Health effects of vegan diets", The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(5), May 2009 (pp.1627S1633S), p.1627S: "A vegan diet appears to be useful for increasing the intake of protective nutrients and phytochemicals and for minimizing the intake of dietary factors implicated in several chronic diseases." doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736N PMID 19279075

"Dietary Guidelines for Australia", National Health and Medical Research Council, p.13; "Government recognises vegan diet as viable option for all Australians", MND Australia, 12 July 2013.

"Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets", Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 103(6), June 2003 (pp.748765), p.755. PMID 12826028

Also see John Davis, "The earliest known uses of the word 'vegetarian'", and "Extracts from some journals 184248 the earliest known uses of the word 'vegetarian'", International Vegetarian Union.

John Davis, "Prototype Vegans," The Vegan, Winter 2010, pp.2223 (also here).

William Lambe, Joel Shew, Water and Vegetable Diet, New York: Fowler's and Wells, 1854 [London, 1815].

In 1838 William Alcott, Amos's cousin, published Vegetable Diet: As Sanctioned by Medical Men and By Experience in All Ages (1838); see William A. Alcott, Vegetable Diet: As Sanctioned by Medical Men and By Experience in All Ages, Boston: Marsh, Capen & Lyon, 1838; Vegetable Diet, New York: Fowlers and Wells, 1851. The word vegetarian appears in the second edition but not the first.

William E. A. Axon, "A Forerunner of the Vegetarian Society", Vegetarian Messenger, December 1893, pp.453455.

Rupert Wheldon, No Animal Food, New York and New Jersey: Health Culture Co., 1910.

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