A bustling port town of antiquity visited by the Chinese monk-travellers Fa-hien, Hsuan-tsang, and Yi Jing, celebrated in ancient Sanskrit literature, notably in the works of Dandin and Kalidas, Tamralipta (now Tamluk, in the Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal) was resurrected from obscurity during the Quit India Movement, when it became the seat of a 'jatiya sarkar' (national government) that lasted for nearly 21 months and was disbanded only after Mahatma Gandhi asked its founders to do so.

Tamluk was the scene of intense nationalistic activity ever since Gandhi gave the call to Indians to 'Do or Die' so that the British 'Quit india'. Much of the work to build up this groundswell was done by a local Congressman named Satish Chandra Samanta, and passions reached their boiling point with the martyrdom of Matangini Hazra, who defied prohibitory orders in force and led peaceful protesters toward the criminal court building with the intention of occupying the police station nearby.

An active member of the Congress, Hazra, who was better-known locally as 'Gandhi buri' (old lady Gandhi), was 72 years old when she was shot thrice by the police, with whom she was pleading not to fire at the protesters following her. Hazra held the Congress flag in her hands even as her life was ebbing away.

Her brutal killing triggered an uprising in Tamluk, which was not always non-violent, and it led to the establishment of the 'jatiya sarkar', which administered the town for 20 months under the leadership of Satish Chandra Samanta, its 'sarbadhinayak' (chief executive), who had quit the Bengal Engineering College in his youth to plunge into the national movement. Established on December 17, 1942, it presided over the administration of Tamluk and earned the goodwill of the people.

The 'jatiya sarkar' ran a newspaper called 'Biplabi' (Revolutionary), conducted cyclone relief work, gave grants to schools and colleges, and even organised a 'Vidyut Vahini' (Electric Force) under the leadership of Samanta's comrade, Sushil Kumar Dhara, in the hope of aligning with Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose's Indian National Army whenever he would liberate India.

Apart from Dhara, Samanta was assisted in his bold enterprise by Ajoy Mukherjee, who later became famous for being elected West Bengal's chief minister for three short terms during a tumultuous period in the state's politics when governments were formed and fell in rapid succession between 1967 and 1971.

Ajoy Mukherjee, who was a prominent leader of the Bangla Congress along with Dhara, its founder, was the mentor of the late former President Pranab Mukherjee. It was on his recommendation that his protege was admitted into the Congress by Indira Gandhi and then inducted into her Council of Ministers in the early 1970s.

Recalling the 'jatiya sarkar' days many years later, when he was President of India, Pranab Mukherjee said: "Gandhiji received a complaint that those who had formed the Tamralipta National Government in Tamluk could not be fully non-violent and had to resort to violence at times.

"Gandhiji had immense faith in Ajoyda and Satishda. He thought this was not possible, but those who had made the complaint were respected Congress leaders. So Gandhiji thought of conducting an inquiry. Some people suggested Ajoyda should lie to Gandhiji. But Sushilda said: 'No. I have to tell everything to him, why we had to resort to violence. Then whatever punishment he decides will be acceptable"."

Pranab Mukherjee continued: "Satishda then told Gandhiji that they could bear everything, but not mass rapes, which broke all their forbearance and compelled some of them to resort to violence.

"After confirming the rapes from the women, Gandhiji came back to them with moist eyes and said: 'Satish, I cannot blame you. But I would have been happier had the incidents not happened'."

It was Gandhi's insistence that 'jatiya sarkar' was disbanded on August 8, 1944, a day before the second anniversary of the Quit India Movement.

The three leaders went on to have a busy political life after Independence. Samanta, who became quite a local legend because of his community service, was the Lok Sabha MP from Tamluk from 1952 to 1977. He died in 1983 at the age of 82.

He stood firmly with the Congress, whereas Dhara broke away and created the Bangla Congress in 1966. He was the MLA from Mahisadal for three terms (1962-77), held ministerial offices in the governments that Ajoy Mukherjee briefly headed, and got elected to the Lok Sabha on a Janata Party ticket in 1977. Dhara quit politics in 1980 and breathed his last in 2011, after completing 101 years.

Ajoy Mukherjee was active in West Bengal politics from 1951 to 1977, serving as the Tamluk MLA (a seat his brother, Biswanath Mukherjee, the CPI leader, later held) when he was not chief minister. Citing bad health, he retired from politics in 1977, passing on his mantle to Pranab Mukherjee. He was honoured with a Padma Bhushan in 1977 and passed away in 1986 at the age of 85.

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Gandhi's Soldiers: They defied the Raj and ran their own 'jatiya sarkar' - Punjab News Express

Patna:Nitish Kumar has formed a government with the RJD by breaking the alliance with the BJP in Bihar. The BJP has attacked the newly formed Grand Alliance government in Bihar led by Nitish Kumar. The BJP has accused the grand alliance government of doing politics of appeasement of Muslims.

Union minister Giriraj Singh and Renu Devi, who was deputy chief minister in the Nitish Kumar government till a few days ago, tweeted a letter written by Director of Primary Education Department Ravi Prakash to all district education officers on August 10. Both the leaders have tweeted this letter and accused the grand alliance government of appeasement.

Through this letter, the Director of the Primary Education Department has sought information regarding the vacant posts of Urdu teachers in the state. He has also asked how many general teacher posts are sanctioned and how many teachers are working. How many posts are vacant? What is the number and percentage of the minority communities in the total teachers appointed? Giriraj Singh tweeted this letter and said that Nitish Kumar's government is surrounded. Giriraj Singh tweeted that no decision has been taken on Sanskrit but the decision on Urdu has come. Within 24 hours of the formation of the government, the politics of appeasement started. At the same time, former Deputy CM of Bihar Government Renu Devi also tweeted on this issue. He tweeted that no decision has come on Sanskrit in the new government but it has come on Urdu. The appeasement shop has opened.

After Nitish's allegation on RCP Singh, Modi gave befitting reply

'Manish Sisodia's fate will be like Satyendar Jain,' BJP attacks AAP

BJP to contest K'taka polls on CM Bommai's face

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Former Deputy CMs statement on Bihars Grand Alliance govt, know what he said? - News Track English

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, reportedly told noted American economist, John Kenneth Galbraith, You realise, Galbraith, that I am the last Englishman to rule in India.

Although Nehru is seen as one of the seminal figures of the Indian independence movement, according to the man himself, after returning from University in the UK, he was as much prejudiced in favour of England and the English as it was possible for an Indian to be.

Nehru was not alone in this regard. After centuries of colonial rule, by the early 1900s, there was a privileged class of Indians who had been educated in English, had adopted European mannerisms, and in the case of people like Nehru, had been educated at Western institutions. The British hoped these Indians would be sufficiently anglicised to act as an intermediary between the Empire and its colonial subjects, but in an ironic twist of fate, the very class of Indians that the British intended to civilise through Western education ended up being the pioneers of the Indian independence movement.

Some will attribute this inadvertent phenomenon to the educational policy laid forth by Thomas Babington Macaulay in 1835, but to truly understand the transformation of schooling under British rule, it is important to look further back into the history of pre-colonial India.

Education in pre-colonial India

Education in pre-colonial India was characterised by a segmentation along religious and caste lines, under what was known as the Gurukul system. As one of the oldest educational structures, the Gurukul system favoured traditional knowledge and spiritual development. Women, lower castes and other underprivileged people were often barred from accessing education.

When the Mughals arrived in the mid 1500s, they attempted to spread education to the general people with Mosques occupying the nexus of this system. However, even then, pathshalas, or village schools remained prominent.

While not much is known about early Indian education, the 17th century French traveller and physician Francois Bernier, was scathing in his criticism of it. Of the holy city of Benares (or Varanasi), he said: There was nothing there approaching a decent university; neither colleges nor classes, just small groups of disciples under religious gurus, housed in the homes of rich merchants.

Of gurus, he was equally dismissive. He claimed that they imparted a worldwide that was fundamentally inconsistent with the tenets of scientific discovery, instead preaching, amongst other things, that the seven continents were surrounded by seas of butter, sugar and wine, and that the whole world was supported on the heads of elephants.

Similarly, in 1985, Delhi-based historian Arpana Basu wrote in an article for the Comparative Education Review, that the village patshalas were often housed in shabby dwellings and taught by ill-qualified teachersThere was no fixed class routine, timetable or school calendar. There was no annual examination.

However, when William Adam, a Scottish missionary who travelled to India in the 1830s, was asked to report to the East India Company on the progress of Indian education, he had a far more favourable view. While he acknowledged that patshalas were limited in resources, he also noted that they seemed to meet the requirements of the time, with gurus deciding what to teach according to the needs of the students.

The early days of British rule

In the beginning, the East India Company assumed little responsibility for education in India. Eighteenth century orientalists were the first to take an interest in the matter. Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of Bengal; William Jones, a British jurist; and Jonathan Duncan, the Governor of Bombay were deeply enamoured by the study of ancient and medieval India and particularly the Sanskrit and Persian language cultures. Their efforts led to the formation of madrasas and colleges across the country along with Indias first literary society, the Asiatic Society of Calcutta. Founded in 1784 by Jones, the Asiatic Society brought the print revolution to India with its publication of a Bengali grammar, being the first work in any Indian language to be printed.

Hastings, an eager patron of Sanskrit himself, was particularly involved in these efforts, personally funding the translation of Sanskrit texts into English and other vernacular languages.

It was only in 1813, that the British Parliament contributed to this development, enacting a provision of Rupees one lakh annually for the revival and improvement of literature and encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences.

Although the state funding initially went to institutions favouring traditional learning, in parallel, Christian missionaries began to open Convent Schools, which reformed and modernised educational standards. According to the historian Zareer Masani, this educational backdrop produced Indias first Western style, secular college, the Calcutta Hindu College, later renamed Presidency College. This joint venture between British officials and the Bengali elite lay the groundwork for future Indian colleges.

These transformations in education were often unpopular back in London, with the directors of the East India Company expressing concern that the spread of Western education may encourage rebellion amongst Indians. However, Governor-General Lord Hastings dismissed these concerns, stating that It would be treason to British sentiment to imagine that it could ever be the principle of this Government to perpetuate ignorance in order to secure paltry and dishonest advantages over the blindness of the multitude.

As Western education flourished in India, politicians in London began to realise that this new group of Indians could actually operate in favour of the British. To administer a large colony like India, the British needed educated professionals to work for them in numbers that would be impractical to import from abroad.

It was under this backdrop that Macaulay drafted the legislation known as the English Education Act of 1835.

Macaulays Minute on Indian Education

Around the time that Macaulay was drafting his signature policy, there was a debate among Indians and the British about the type of education needed in India. The Orientalists believed in the promotion of traditional Indian education in vernacular languages while their opponents, the Anglicists, thought that the government should spend money only on Western education, imparted in English.

Macaulay belonged to the latter camp, advocating for the creation of a pool of Indians capable of serving British interests. This group would be Indian by blood and colour, but English by tastes, opinions, morals and intellect. Entry into this group would also be limited to only a few Indians, who would then educate the rest of the population according to Macaulays controversial Downward Filtration Theory.

Modhumita Roy, a professor at Tufts University, describes the policy as being specifically designed to create a certain class who would assist in the administrative functioning of the colonial state and was neither designed to be, nor directed toward, mass education. She says the policy did not result in a large-scale increase of literacy, dismissing the filtration theory as a pipe dream.

In addition to prioritising funding for Western education, in 1844, Lord Hastings administration announced that preference for office appointments would be given to people who could speak English fluently. These twin policies contributed to the rapid growth of European style Universities in India, particularly in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta.

However, even amongst the British, Macaulays theory was controversial. After the British Crown took over from the Company following the revolt of 1857, Viceroy Lord Mayo made a scathing assessment of the countrys educational policy, lamenting that the British were educating a few hundred Babus at a great expense, who would then do nothing toward extending knowledge to the millions. In keeping with his own priorities, he added that these English speaking Babus did little to advance British interests.

Instead, he prioritised the recommendations of the 1854 Woods Despatch, which called for the spread of education in both English and vernacular languages. The report, which is described as the Magna Carta of English Education in India, encouraged students to study in local languages at the school level and then transition to English in University. Woods Despatch was to form the basis for all future legislation related to the spread of education in India.

As for the patshalas, those that were willing to accept the new system were supported through government grants, while those unwilling to, received no state support. Additionally, the rigid nature of the system, which required regular attendance, excluded many children from poor families, who had to work in the fields and were unable to attend school consistently. Going forward, the Gurukul system was severely curtailed, never to regain the prominence of its early days.

The British educational policy was controversial in many ways however, it would be inaccurate to assign them sole responsibility for it. As historian Amar Kumar Singh, wrote in Minerva Magazine in 1963, if the colonial administrators instituted English in order to produce consent among the ruled, it is remarkable how little resistance there was from the indigenous population to begin with. It is fair to say that indigenous elites clearly aided the introduction of English as the official language.

History may judge those elites harshly for favouring British customs over their own cultural heritage but, from Mahatma Gandhi to Jawaharlal Nehru to Muhammad Ali Jinnah, it was those same elites that formed the backbone of the Independence movement. According to Singh, this group was introduced to revolutionary ideas through Western education, and therefore, it was the English educated who led the nationalist movement from its very inception.

Impact on the Independence Movement

Combined with an economic and social transition, the education policy created a new neo-social class which included trading communities, civil servants and businessmen. Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Swami Vivekananda, Aurobindo Ghose, Gopala Krishna Gokhale, Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Surendranath Banerjea and others who belonged to this group led the social movements in India.

Educated Indians were exposed to a range of western revolutionary thinkers which in turn fuelled their own desire for independence. In particular, the ideas of philosophers John Locke and Voltaire were particularly influential according to Singh. Both men wrote extensively on the nature of government and argued that it is the responsibility of the citizen to remain sceptical and keep government representatives accountable. Through the study of these ideas, educated Indians started to realise the importance of basic rights such as the right of assembly and of a free press, and used their considerable political clout to unite the Indian people against colonial rule.

These leaders gathered to form various organisations and educate the people on the policies of the British. One of those organisations was the Indian National Congress.

However, many were critical of this new intelligentsia with Rabindranath Tagore stating that outside the bhadralogue class, pathetic in their struggle for xing a university label on their name, there is a vast obscure multitude who cannot even dream of such a costly ambition.

Amongst the anglicised Indians, there were many that had benefited from British rule, but desired to see an India freed from foreign occupation. Of the 16 members of the first Nehru Cabinet, 31 per cent had been educated abroad.

Historian Sumita Mukherjee in her book, The Social Interactions of the England Returned, writes that The INC was initially dominated by English-educated elites. A change in leadership and authority occurred from 1920, when the INC began to adopt Khadi dress; more delegates from the lower middle classes began to become involved in the Congress and there was an increasing use of Hindi and other vernaculars instead of English.

The legacy of Western education in India continues till today, and while we can debate over the intent of the policy, it is hard to ignore the considerable impact that it had on the Independence Movement.

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Their own worst enemy; how Britain's education policy cost it the Empire's Crown Jewel - The Indian Express

Teaching Sanskrit through computational tools is an effective way due to which a language as difficult as Sanskrit would become relatively easy and more students would be able to learn it. Computational linguistics is defined as a combination of Computer Science and any language.

Speaking to Education Times, Amba Kulkarni, Professor, Department of Sanskrit Studies, University of Hyderabad, says, In order to read any Sanskrit text one needs to know the suffix attached to the Sanskrit word which is not seen separately. This suffix is integrated with the Sanskrit word. Learning Sanskrit is a difficult task as the learners would have to memorise all the forms of Kriya (verb). In the Sanskrit language, there are, in addition to singular and plural, dual forms of the words. In order to help users, we have designed a computational tool where we just give a word and the machine shows all the forms of that Sanskrit word. For instance, if we enter the word Rama, the computer will provide us with all its forms in the Sanskrit language."

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Computational tools to make Sanskrit teaching interesting and simpler - Times of India

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Debut novels are exciting to read because they promise a new voice, a fresh cast of characters, and an adventurous ride into hitherto unknown fictional worlds. These qualities are prominently on display in journalist-turned-novelist Anindita Ghoses book The Illuminated.

While it has been widely described as a novel about the changing contours of a mother-daughter relationship, there is a lot more going on. This book is also about loneliness in marriage, liberation in widowhood, sexual exploitation in academia, women in politics, and the confusing nature of desire, and the heartbreak of families spread out over continents.

Tara is a scholar of Sanskrit poetics, enraptured by the words of Bilhana, a 11th century Kashmiri poet and Bhartrihari, a reverred Sanskrit writer. But life isnt easy for her. Tara was raised by a father who made it his mission in life to make her happy. His death leaves her with a void that is difficult to fill, especially because of the rocky relationship with her mother and the rare opportunity to meet her brother who lives in New Jersey.

Shashi, her mother, is a philosophy graduate married to Robi, a man who is respected in the community and is financially well-off. However, he is hardly present emotionally. She suspects a romantic liaison outside their marriage but is too afraid to enquire. Her husbands death gives her a chance to think of herself as an independent person with dreams and plans of her own.

Saying that Tara and Shashi are as different as chalk and cheese would be an understatement. Tara thrives on being desired, and struggles to handle rejection from men that she is sexually interested in. Shashi is presented mainly as a maternal figure, not only for her children but also for younger women who know her as a teacher. Her desires are rarely discussed.

Ghose explores the complicated nature of their equation with care. The generosity that Shashi demonstrates in trying to understand her daughter, and making peace with her, is laudable. After her husbands death, she is able to see Tara as a woman in the world and not only as a daughter. She also seeks inspiration from Taras feisty spirit as she comes into her own.

Theres an important sub-plot, a crucial one, especially in the light of the MeToo movement but it seems hastily dealt with. Two other characters in this book, Noor and KC Meenakshi, are wonderfully etched but their stories seem to end as soon as they begin. One is left hungry for more. The former is an activist that Tara meets in Dharamsala, and the latter is a politician who is the founder of a new state with an all-woman cabinet calling the shots. On the whole, a book worth reading to engage with the questions it raises and the alternatives it offers.

The Illuminated By: Anindita Ghose Publisher: HarperCollins India Pages: 312 Price: Rs 599

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'The Illuminated' book review: Many shades of grief - The New Indian Express

If youve had a cold, mucus is hard to miss. We call it snot, phlegm, nosie, leak, phtooey (for MAD comics fans), gunk, grey matter, and the like. There is a word for it in every language, and the Sanskrit word for it is muncati which morphed into Latin meug for slimy, or emungere, to sneeze out, from which the English term mucus was derived. Our bodies produce more than a litre of mucus every day in our mouth, nose, lungs, throat, stomach, intestines and the rectum. They are excreted from the outer cell lining of these organs that are collectively called mucous membranes.

Mucus may be repulsive to look at, it may give us a blocked nose and a heavy head, but although it may often seem like it, its sole role is not to make you miserable! This sticky jelly performs several vital functions that allow our organs to keep working efficiently. It keeps delicate tissues from drying out and cracking, and, more importantly, it protects these tissues from being infected by the billions of microbes that we encounter, ingest and inhale every day. It is mucus that lubricates our eyes and allows us to blink. It is mucus that protects our stomach lining from dissolving by acid, which the lining itself produces. In addition, mucus is also home to trillions of beneficial microbial inhabitants, which includes viruses. We all contain our personal menagerie of microbes, and the scientific term for it is microbiome. Mucus is nearly 90 per cent water. It is rather simple to make mucus-like substance using ingredients found in your kitchen.

Heres how you do it: You will need about 200 ml of water in a pan; a cup or a small measure; cooking gelatin or clear jelly; corn syrup or corn starch; a teaspoon and a fork for whisking the contents in the pan. First, put about half a cup of water to boil. After it simmers, add three teaspoons of gelatin until it softens, and stir it with a fork. Add about 80 gm or half a cup of corn syrup, and again whisk with a fork. Notice that thick viscous stringy bits begin to form. Reduce the flame of the stove and continue stirring, adding small amounts of water. Soon, your snot will be ready. To make it look real, add a drop of green food colour. Consider using it as layer for tarts, puddings or glazed cakes for next years Halloween. Students of pathology can have some fun with it in their parties!

What is so special about mucus that allows it to be so versatile and perform such a variety of functions? The secret ingredient in mucus is a set of proteins called mucins. Mucins are what biochemists term as glycoproteins (glyco-sugar), which are long-chained sugars with a protein backbone. This enables mucins to form a mesh-like polymer which acts as a barrier against pathogens and other invaders. Only a few beneficial microbes, ones that have co-evolved with the mucous membrane, are permitted to pass. Although they may look quite alike, chemically, mucus in each organ has a slightly different composition. This conveyor belt of slime cleans up our guts, lungs, noses and throats, so that they function properly. The next time you clear your throat, remember it is the mucus that you are displacing.

This is how mucus works. At the first signs of an infection, the organ sends a signal to all cells to ramp up its mucus production and to flush out the intruder. Remember, mucus contains trillions of beneficial microbes that include bacteria and viruses. Local bacterial residents put up a fight to displace the aggressor, and some viruses play the role of messengers to tell neighbouring cells to prepare for a fight. Our immune cells get alerted and if the invader gets more aggressive, our white blood cells (WBCs) and specific cells called immunoglobulins get summoned. When you develop a common cold, the throat and nose get instigated to cough or sneeze out the pathogen as much as they can. Next, the infection triggers the production of clear, thin mucus in the nose and back of the throat. This is because of an enzyme (called myeloperoxidase) found in WBCs kicks in and it successively helps cells to release two powerful oxidants hydrogen peroxide and hypochlorous acid. The yellow-green snot you enclose in your kerchief is the battle between the coalition of your bodys cells and the invader. This concerted strategy of working for a healthy microbiome, warding off invaders, and keeping a fine balance of the numbers and types of residents, is a complicated arrangement a bit like the governance of the UN or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. They may look repulsive but there are few other bodily substances that cleanse, moisten, protect, and maintain peace, all at once.

Interestingly, fish have a mucus layer on the outside of their bodies that protects them from getting infected by the multitude of microbes that live in water. Fish, the oldest vertebrates to have evolved, were the first to develop mucus, and it has been passed down from the fish to every back-boned creature that has every lived since. Our guts, too, face an assault of bacteria and viruses, and it is mucus that hosts the good bacteria and viruses that repel pathogens, help in digestion and improve immune function. The sugar chain in mucin attaches to water molecules and helps the mucus to absorb, dissolve and transport food across the gut barrier. So, the next time you go aa-tishoo and see snot, remember to thank both your fish ancestors from whom you have inherited it, and also the multitude of microbes in your mucus who are looking out for you. All hail mucus!

Pranay Lal is a Delhi-based biochemist, artist, and author. He has written two books, Indica: A Deep Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent, and Invisible Empire: The Natural History of the Viruses

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What does the outside of the fish and inside of our guts have in common - The Indian Express

First published: 9 November 2021

Last updated: 10 November 2021

As the trailblazers of the Vedic metal subgenre, Singaporean band Rudra has a reputation for traversing the boundaries of black and death metal by incorporating traditional Indian music and Sanskrit mantras into their unique repertoire of songs.

This distinctive interpolation of two seemingly disparate genres of music results in an avant-garde sound that is characteristically Rudrayoull certainly be hard-pressed to find another band whose lyrical content draws inspiration from Vedic philosophy the way they do.

Since their inception in 1992, Rudra has seen several line-up changes but one thing that has remained consistent for the band is their unwavering dedication to putting out innovative albums which metalheads around the globe can thoroughly appreciate.

Bandwagon had a chat with Kathir (vocals, bass), Shiva (drums), Devan (guitars), and Vinod (guitars) to run through Rudra's extensive discography of studio albums starting with their 1995 demoThe Past, and finally ending with 2016s Enemy of Duality.If you've ever wondered how the band would rank their oeuvre of works, read on to find out.

This 4-track demo was put out in 1995 when Rudra was still a three-piece band that went by the name RUDHRA. Tell me more about how this demo came to be, and why you decided to alter the band name?

Shiva: The demo was way back in 95 with the original line-up which was me, Kathir, and Bala. We started in 1992 as a three-piece band and progressively played in many band competitions back then to gain some exposure. We even entered the finals in one of them. Along the way, we felt that one guitar wasnt good enough so we got another guitarist to join the band. At that point in time, the birth of the band brought Kathir and me together as we both wanted to play underground music that was heavy and fast. If you listen to The Past demo, the music sounds a lot more like melodic death metal which is quite different from what were now playing.

Kathir: The reason why we altered the name of the band is because we felt that in proper Sanskrit translations, the H did not belong there. When we started to write a new debut album, we decided to correct that error so we dropped the H. There are some guys who tend to claim that these are two different bands which Shiva and I disagree on because we have been continuously present in both those line-ups, all the way from 92 until now, and we still play the songs on this record.

Your next three albums have recently been re-issued by the Beijing-based label Awakening Records. Since it has been almost 30 years since they were first released, were you stoked to see new cover artworks, and also listen to the remastered versions of these albums?

Kathir: We initially felt that giving the albums each a new cover art was not the most exciting idea but when we actually saw the mind-blowing artwork itself, we realised it was a great decision. From a marketing perspective, we required a kind of refresher so the four of us felt that we should go with it. It was a sonic renewal visually because we spent a lot of time with the designer who created these hand-drawn paintings. Vinod was the one who remastered the albums, and I think he did a great job on that. The sound is very monstrous.

Vinod: Basically, the original versions of the first three albums were great but I felt that it could sound more powerful so thats what we tried to achieve when we decided to remaster it. We added more volume, and more bass so it sounded fuller even though it was the same recordings. You can feel a little bit more energy and dynamics coming out of the remastered version. It was a nice experienceeven though I wasnt involved in these recordings, I was involved in the sound of these albums.

It has been 23 years since your self-titled album came out. What went on in the making of Rudra?

Shiva: As for the debut album, it was quite painful because the band Rudhra with the H had other guitarists who we were close with but split from because we had our own musical differences. I was in the Air Force at that time and one fine day, I got a phone call from Kathir who said Im thinking of doing a Vedic Indian kind of band concept. Would you be interested? I couldnt say no, and the rest was history. Kathir even bought a drum set and double pedal for me. We had everything at his house, and thats when we actually started to compose Rudra.

I would say this album is a monumental success because it did really well when it first came out. How does it feel knowing that your debut set the direction, and laid the groundwork for your band?

Kathir: When we recorded this album, it was a risk we were taking. Shiva and I were talking about what we were hearing in the studio but we were doubtful about whether the metalheads would accept it. That was a big question for us because there was no precedent for something like this with Sanskrit chants, Indian classical music, and all of that. So we were wondering what the response would be. It was a complete risk and gamble to see how the metal world would respond to our self-release. We put it out in tapes, and the next thing we know, someone calls us saying Hey, Id like to sign you guys. Were going to release this in Asia first. We were surprised that someone would want to do this. After we were signed, we got our first cheque that was a four-figure sum. It was quite unbelievable for a band in the 90s to get that much money as an advance.

How do you think the songs from your self-titled are holding up today? Are they still fan favourites?

Kathir: I think they are. Theres a tie between this album and The Aryan Crusade as people consider the second album to be seminal, and definitive of the Vedic metal sound.Shiva made a very good point that every song on that album sounds different. This was a very conscious and deliberate decision. It was because of the template that we had. I remember telling him that I wanted this album to be like Black Sabbaths Vol.4 but not in terms of sound, in terms of the diversity of the songs. We wanted every song to be distinct. It became our best-selling album to date. At that time, there was no digital platformeither you buy a tape or you buy a CD. It even got released in Europe and Indonesia.

Was it exciting going on tour with all this new material?

Shiva: Our first overseas tour outside of Singapore and Malaysia, was in India. It was really exciting because we were young, and it was a big show with many people attending.

Tell me more about your sophomore album, The Aryan Crusade.

Kathir: With the relative success of our debut album, we became really bold actually. That gave us a kind of strength, conviction, and motivation to do something a little more pronounced in terms of the Vedic metal genre. We held back before because we wanted to test the waters but with The Aryan Crusade, we knew that we had passed that test. We knew that we could sell this many units, and we knew that we had fans across the globe. Because we didnt hold back, the title in itself was very controversial because we knew that we were going to get flak for the word Aryan. It was very deliberate. We wanted to make a statement. We spent a lot of money on the recording but it was worth it. Lyrically and musically, it was very bold. We wanted to just spread our wings and do what we do best.

How do you feel about the word Aryan being misconstrued; say, by European distros at the time?

Kathir: At that time, we felt that it was utter stupidity for anyone to consider the word to be a derogatory term because that word has a very ancient root that goes back even 2,000 years prior. This word appears in Sanskrit texts so we thought it was an aberration that contemporary civilisation and culture would look at it negatively. We wanted to use that word to provoke. That was the intention. The reason why we wanted to do that was to create curiosity around that word, and possibly to debunk myths around it.

The Aryan Crusade speaks volumes of the Vedic Metal sound. Why do you think the opening song Aryaputra is such a crowd favourite during live shows?

Shiva: Probably because of the way the song starts. It begins with a mid-tempo riff and goes into a slow blast beat. The chorus is also quite popular with the crowd. I dont know why the song became so successful but yes, it has always been our first song after the intro. Over the years, I guess the crowd got used to it. To the point where if we start with another song first, theyd get disappointed.

Vinod: I guess I could answer this question too. When Aryaputra first got released, I wasnt part of the band yet. I was still a fan. Ive heard all the songs from the album but there were a few songs that really stood out to me. Aryaputra is maybe like Megadeths Holy Wars or Metallicas Enter Sandman.That was Rudras Aryaputra basically. That was probably the catchiest song that the band actually had so that was the one everyone was always looking out for.

Malevolent Creed seems to be reminiscent of Deaths Human. I know you guys also did a cover of Pull the Plug and Forgotten Past on your EP Invoking the Godsare you guys huge fans of Death? What other death metal bands have inspired Rudra?

Devan: I think all of us like Death. Vinod especially.

Vinod: When we chose the songs for that album, each of us wanted to choose something that resonated with us, and my choice was basically Death. It was also a band that everyone liked.

Devan: I think Slayer is the one that tops everything else.

Kathir: Obituary for me.

Vinod: Carcass, cant forget that.

Shiva: I have a long list but I would say Deicide.

Let's talk Kurukshetra.

Kathir: By this time we had already rented a studio. We booked a room for two years, and we decided to write an album with our own equipment in the room. This was the first time we did that. With The Aryan Crusade, we did not see as many unit sales because of Napster. The large scale download platforms completely destroyed the sales. Most bands were suffering because of illegal downloads. From there, we were not interested in looking out for sales anymore. But people were getting to know us across the globe so we started to write albums based on very strong themes.

I understand Kurukshetra was inspired by the battlefield in the epic Sanskrit poem Mahabharata.

Kathir: Yes, Kurukshetra is actually about an ancient battlefield in the Sanskrit epic. We wanted that album to be as if we were actually in a battle scene. At the same time, I think The Lord of The Rings movie had just been released. Im not sure which one from the series but the guitarist we had at the time, Kanan, gave me a call saying the battle scenes were just amazing and monumental, and he would like to have that in mind when writing this album so he distinctly brought those scenes into his head during the writing process. Im not a big fan of The Lord of The Rings myself but I felt that it was real fuel for us to have in our heads when we were writing the album. Again, Kurukshetra represents a lyrical onslaught and an intellectual battle that was taking place in someones mind. The opening song is a very succinct way of presenting the whole album so we called it Justified Aggression. The battle is not outside, its inside our heads; now thats the battle that is worth fighting because it is a philosophical assault on everything that is negatable. We even have a song called Negate on the album.

It seems that a lot of Rudras lyrical content is deeply influenced by literature and philosophywhat initially spawned the idea to incorporate these textual elements into your songs?

Kathir: Yes because as metalheads, lyrics have always been serious stuff. We thought that we could bring another aspect of this seriousness to metal, in the form of Indian philosophy, and basically, our interpretation of whatever weve read or have been inspired by. Kurukshetra represents a time when we saw a lot of religious tension around us. This was across the globe right after 9/11. It was primarily fanatism, terrorism, and all of that, and Im not talking about any particular religion per se. The very response to terrorism can be terrorism itself. Its not that were looking at a group of people and trying to profile them by saying they are terrorists. Thats not the point. The way we deal with terrorism itself can promote terrorism in my opinion. So we were actually very critical of ideologies regardless of what they areany kind of ideology or belief system that kind of betrays the very nature of humanity. That was what we were up against, and that was the inspiration for Kurukshetra.

Was Brahmavidya always meant to be a trilogy?

Kathir: Primordial I is a very important album, at least from my perspective. It was the first time we thought of the idea of a trilogy, and it was our first conceptual album. It also became a kind of textual commentarywe were taking ancient texts that were as old as 3,000 years, and we were making each song sort of a commentary of an aspect of the text. Primordial I becomes one of those albums that harrows the beginning of conceptual albums for Rudra. For the first time ever, we also got a producer for an album. We heard a demo Joshua produced and thought it was immense so we asked if he could produce our album. This was the first album we didnt produce ourselves. The production value was quite different, and this album was also signed by another label in Malaysia. In many ways, Primordial I was the beginning of kind of phase two in the bands history.

Shiva: The first three albums were recorded without a click track. This was the first album for me that was recorded using one so it was something very different. Our anthem song in this album is The Pathless Path to the Knowable Unknown. That song is the most played. I think we play that song at the end of every gig. When we first jammed this song, it didnt form an impression at all. It was only after the song was actually recorded, did we start to like it. And the rest was history.

Kathir: Every time we write an album, the lyrics are not done yet. The vocal performance isnt there so we dont get the full picture. The thing that stands out in 'The Pathless Path to the Knowable Unknown is the repetitive chant that wasnt there when we were jamming in the studio. But the moment we started to layer that song with chants and vocals, we saw a different dimension to that song. It was premature when we were jamming in the studio, and Shiva is right, it was at the bottom of the list so we almost eliminated that song from the album. Its a great thing we didnt because it became the most popular song on Spotify.

I've also been meaning to ask: how much influence does Black metal have on your albums?

Kathir: I think Kurukshetra and The Aryan Crusade have black metal influences. The reason is that we were very big fans of Bathory who predated the modern Norwegian black metal stuff. We were schooled by Under the Sign of the Black Mark, The Return..., and Blood Fire Death.These very early Bathory recordings very much formed our black-death sound.

Moving onto Transcendental. Devan, do you want to talk about this one since you were involved?

Devan: Thats when I first joined Rudra. Having been a big fan of Rudra from the debut album, when I first heard Primordial, I felt that it was so different to all the earlier albums because its very modern sounding. The incorporation of all the Indian instruments is a little bit more pronounced there. When I came into the picture for Transcendental, I remember speaking to Kathir and Shiva about exploring more Indian sounding guitar riffs, and so we had very good jam sessions in the studio where we worked on some of the melody sections. Its a lot more Indian-ised I would say, and even faster than Primordial because we were trying to explore click tracks around 220 and 240. We were trying to push the limits basically. The songs are much longer; theres a lot more going on with the drums, the guitars, and the bass as well, in terms of technicalities. It was a natural progression from the previous album. Every album brings a different kind of experience so I think Transcendental at that time came naturally. It sounded very grand I would say.

What was it like collaborating with Singaporean director Jacen Tan on the music video for Hymns from the Blazing Chariot?

Devan: That was a very nice experience, working with him from the concept stage, where he was coming up with the storyboard and all. It was very detailed, and we had a little bit of doubt in our mind about whether it could be achieved but he pulled it off by recording the video in front of a green screen. To see the end product after what weve been through, felt amazing.

Also, I've always wondered, how do you decide on which particular Sanskrit texts to focus each album on?

Kathir: Being the primary lyricist, I would start coming up with a very clear theme before the band even begins writing an album. We would decide on that before we even finalise the songs. Right when we conceive an idea or a vision, I usually go to my library to look at all the Sanskrit texts that would be connected to the theme. From there, we start coming up with the lyrics and thats how we build the concept for an album. As Devan has shared, writing Transcendental was probably the most difficult experience for me as a lyricist because I had to choose from countless Sanskrit texts. I had to break it down and look at distinct themes. It was almost like a literature study. All the books were piled up on my desk, and on the weekends I would decide on what to shortlist.

Lets explore Immortal. Vinod, do you want to share more about that?

Vinod: So Immortal was actually my first album with Rudra. When I joined the band, it was quite stressful knowing that all their albums were so good, especially the first two from the trilogy. My concern was I didnt want to come into the band to release an album that was a suck-y one. At that time, we thought about how we should approach the album. Primordial was heavy and fast, Transcendental was faster and a bit more chaotic so we were wondering what we were going to do with Immortal. We decided that maybe we should just take a step down with the tempo but add a little bit more groove to it. It was a fun experience because I was working with great musicians. The whole process was very different from what Ive done with other bands. This time we sat down and wrote stuff together, and I had to try to deliver an Indian style of playing so the whole process was actually very fun and interesting. I mean, the drums were done in a landed house, and some of the guitars were done in Devans home as well. We recorded in a kind of do-it-yourself way so I enjoyed the whole experience.

Do you think the chanting on songs like Illusory Enlightenment adds another dimension to the album?

Devan: Yeah, it does. Chanting brings the listener into more of a meditative state. That itself is a different kind of experience. Some bands do chanting as well but I would say in Rudra, its a lot more pronounced.

Youve also mentioned that Immortal I is based on using logic and reasonwould you care to reiterate more on this?

Kathir: In Indian philosophy, especially in that particular school of thought we usually write about, there are three foundations. The first foundation is called the revelatory texts, which was what Primordial was based on.Transcendental was based on texts that came later. The third foundation was logic and reasoning which was a very crucial part of that whole school of thought. The critical modes of enquiry and the deconstruction of ideas are part of that. The opening song Now, Therefore is actually the first line of that very critical text.

As RTA is reflective of Valmikis deeply emotive Ramayana, which is one of the largest epics in world literature, was there a sort of pressure to do it justice?

Vinod: We had a very different approach to RTA. This was one album where we actually sat down and went through Ramayana. We were just talking about what the characters were thinking, how they were feeling, and it was very interesting because, at that point in time, Shiva, Kathir, and I were just writing the songs in my bedroom. Shiva had my iPad with the drums on it, and we went through all the chapters and composed based on what we felt. Before we did that, Kathir actually bought me the book, and I spent a whole month reading it to understand what was really happening in the story. I wouldnt say there was a lot of pressure but I definitely looked forward to reading it because I knew we were going to write an album about it so I really wanted to know more about the story. That definitely helped with the whole composition as well. You can feel the emotions just by listening to the songs.

Last but certainly not least, we have Enemy of Duality.

Vinod: Thats another interesting album as well. In Enemy of Duality, we recorded most of the instruments ourselves, except for the drums which we had an engineer mix and master. We worked with our last guitarist Simon, and the whole process was quite fun because, with a different guitarist, the range they brought in was very distinctive as well. Its definitely different from all the other albums because this is one where all of us were part of all the chanting. This was one where all of us were really really involved.

On this record, you guys utilised a lot of Indian classical instruments such as the didgeridoo, flute, sitar, and tablas. What was it like experimenting with all these instruments, and how do you integrate them so seamlessly into the songs?

Vinod: Kathir was quite heavily involved with the planning on where we should put certain instruments. I never knew the didgeridoo would work in our music but it turned out really well. The sitar was a first as well. But we found that all these added a lot of value to the songs.

Shiva: Vinod has pretty much covered everything. Again, mine is the b-side of the story. The drums were recorded at Leonards studio, and he was telling me that he didnt like the electronic sound most metal bands have, the very heavily triggered kind of sound. Vinod remastered my drums and made them sound better on the album. But if you listen to the original take, its very organic. Its like the old school Show No Mercy or Hell Awaitskind of drum sound. The last song Ancient Fourth was just an ordinary song until they put in the traditional drums.

Vinod: We got percussionists from Damuru Singapore. I think this added a whole different dynamic to the song.

Kathir: The music video was 9-10 minutes long but we wanted to do it because we felt that song was very representative of who we are. We decided to go for the same director who did the music video for Now, Therefore on Immortal. But this time weve got dancers, percussionists, we brought that all into one music video. We felt that it was a visual representation of the sound. It was an artistic exploration for us.

Okay, this is a bit of a tough question but if you guys had to rank your albums, how would you place them?

Enemy of Duality

Primordial I

RTA

Immortal I

The Aryan Crusade

Kurukshetra

Transcendental I

Rudra

Devan:

The Aryan Crusade

Rudra

Kurukshetra

Primordial I

Transcendental I

Immortal I

RTA

Enemy of Duality

Shiva:

Kurukshetra

Rudra

The Aryan Crusade

Transcendental I

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Rudra on their extensive discography: No extreme metal band has - Bandwagon

Much as politics around Rambhakti has fallen to its nadir, scholarly endeavour to study the vast traditions of Rama stories is reaching the pinnacle of excellence. Some of the finest historians and scholars of literary traditions, visual cultures and performing arts have come together to showcase the results of their outstanding scholarship on the Ramayanas myriad traditions. Parul Pandya Dhar, a distinguished editor and leading art historian, has perceptively organised and contextualised the stupendous range of fascinating material on retelling the epic, encompassing several centuries and geographical boundaries across South and Southeast Asiathe long-standing connections between the two regions are determined by historical processes of epic proportions. The splendid product on offer19 chapters each with an introductionis a veritable treat for anyone with a heart for appreciating diverse tellings of the extraordinary credentials of Maryada Purushottam Sri Ram of Ayodhya. The equally fascinating character of Lankas Ravanathe powerful anti-hero (and in some cases, a hero in his own right)also comes alive in parts of the book spread over 370 pages.

The editor and publisher deserve praise for bringing together this marvellous collection of essays, placed in three distinct yet interrelated mediums of artistic expressionsspectacular visual representations, powerful literary compositions and tantalising performance traditions.

The book emerges out of an international conference on the multivalence of the epic, which was organised by Professor D.S. Achuta Rao Endowment in Bengaluru in 2017. The contributors include accomplished scholars of repute and erudite young researchers located across the world. The meticulously produced volume with over a hundred exquisite images will also be a collectors delight.

The first section on visual culturessculptures, paintings and inscriptionscomprises as many as eight articles, beginning with Parul Pandya Dhars rigorous study of inscriptions and sculptures retelling the Ramayana in pre-Vijayanagara Karnataka. From around the 5th century onwards, dynastic eulogies compare rulers with Rama as an ideal king, who is also represented in early inscriptions as a divine incarnation, avatara. These regional references to Rama and to Ravana reveal departures from the Valmiki Ramayana (c. 500 BCE to 200 CE).

The next contribution by John Brockington emphasises the significance of visual and inscriptional sources predating textual evidence of the Rama story in Southeast Asia. Yet visual imagery and inscriptions are also found side by side with texts since the late 9th century in Java, but much later in large parts of Southeast Asia, including Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand and Myanmar, with possible connections with Bengal.

Also read: An epic tale in many forms

Valerie Gillet highlights the presence of Rama as an incarnation of Vishnu in the Pallava royal iconography, both in inscriptions and temple reliefs from Kancheepuram, in a milieu which sought to project the superiority of Siva over Vishnu and Rama. The latters presence in the royal discourse was subsequently asserted by the Cholas, who accorded significant space to the Ramayana in their visual repertoire.

Further, Rachel Loizeau offers a fine reading of the Ramayana in the rich Khmer sculptures with reference to the Yuddhakanda in Angkorian Cambodia, 10th-12th centuries, in a context in which there is a dearth of texts. The sculptures reveal complex adaptations, with new motifs inspired by local concerns on the pediments and lintels of Hindu temples and Buddhist monumentsespecially exalting chivalry and valour, besides serving an apotropaic function, that is, depicting power to avert evil influences or bad luck.

Back in southern India, under the Cholas, bronzes and sculptures of Rama, Sita, Lakshmana and Hanuman were deployed as important processional icons. A scientific-technical analysis of some of the key bronze icons by Sharada Srinivasan suggests that archaeo-metallurgical finger-printing of Chola period bronzes are distinct from the later Vijayanagara ones, even as the possibility of melting and recasting as well as fresh stylisation indicates the need for understanding interesting complexities, both in terms of historical chronology and iconographic features.

In continuation with the editors approach of a back-and-forth movement to highlight intertextual cross-referencing between South and Southeast Asian traditions, though within a broad chronology, the next chapter by Gauri Parimoo Krishnan draws our attention to the adaptation, localisation and transformations in the character of Hanuman in Southeast Asia, in particular in Javanese, Khmer and Siamese portrayals. Styled variously as half human-half ape, puppet and dancer, with motifs drawn from visual and performance arts of varied cultural zones of Southeast Asia, Hanuman is presented as an intelligent being, artful lover and playful magician in the service of Rama.

Further, in the centuries to come (16th-17th), the Nayaka rulers brought the idea of Rama rajya from their homeland in Vijayanagara to the Tamil-speaking region of southern India. The dual project of popularisation and regionalisation of the epic has been studied by R.K.K. Rajarajan with reference to the Ramayana paintings in the haloed precincts of the historic Maliruncolai temple, connecting them with traditions relating to Tamil Alvar hymns of 7th-9th centuries and with Kampans 12th century Iramavataram. It thus becomes part of the larger subcontinental devotional tradition, a process intelligently mediated by the Nayakas.

In line with understanding the multivalent contours of Ramayana traditions, transcending time and space, the last essay on visual cultures by Cheryl Thiruchelvam examines the continually evolving traditions of the Ramayana epic as expressed in different contemporary art forms in Malaysia. They range from traditional shadow puppets to digitised characters and narrate episodes from the epic relevant to the specific socio-political and religious contexts of present-day Malaysia.

The second section of the volume on literary practices explores a huge archive of texts, examining narrative accent and recitation, and showcasing associated imagery. Malini Saran highlights the significance of the discourse on governance and ethics as a leitmotif in the Old Javanese Ramayana, or the Ramayana Kakawin (9th century), the oldest extant Ramayana text from Southeast Asia, which has followed a 7th century Indian retelling of the Ramayana, poet Bhattis Ravanavadha or Bhattikavya. As a Javanese text on ideal kingship, it goes on to have a life of its own greatly impacting later Islamic courts of Java, and as a text meant for performance it also fused boundaries between textual and performative traditions.

The next chapter by Chirapat Prapandvidya looks at the close links of Thai Ramakien (Sanskrit: Ramakirti) with south India, through connections with older traditions of Ramayana in Cambodia. In doing so, it digresses from the Valmiki Ramayana, which too was known in Thailand between the 11th and 13th centuries. Surviving political violence, the current version of Thai Ramakien is attributed to the first ruler of the Chakri dynasty, who assumed the names of both Buddha and RamaKing Phra Buddha Yodfa Chulalok or King Rama Iand ruled from Bangkok between 1782 and 1809.

The Southeast Asian Ramayana tradition also includes the enigmatic character of the floating maiden, a rakhsasi known as Benjakai or Srijeti, who is presented not only as counterfeiting a dead Sita to deceive Rama but is also portrayed as being in a romantic liaison with Hanuman.

Also read: Ramayanas of South and South-east Asia

Mary Brockington deploys wide-ranging material to analyse the complex web of sharing and innovation of narrative elements and motifs from within Southeast Asian regions and across the ocean, which produced a colourful character of the rakhsasi, including a possible connection with the 10th century Sanskrit drama, Rajashekharas Balaramayana.

The next two chapters (12-13) in the section on literary cultures look at Ramayana traditions in Malayalam. A.J. Thomas studies Tunchat Ezhuttaccans Adhyatma Ramayanam Kilippattu, a 16th-17th century Malayalam bhakti text aimed at offering spiritual solace to a people suffering from entrenched social exclusion and injustice, with no access to Sanskrit scriptures. Thomas offers a translation of excerpts from the text, in which Rama figures as the supreme deity, besides analysing its larger significance in Kerala society, which is reflected in its popularity down to modern times.

Translation being an act of retelling, Sudha Gopalakrishnan presents a fine rendering in English of the critical Malayalam poetic composition, Chintavishtayaya Sita (Sita in Deep Contemplation) of Kumaran Asan (1873-1924), one of the Malayalam literary stalwarts. In exile with her two sons and Valmiki, Kumaran Asans Sita experiences her own agency, embracing truths about herself and Rama with grace and dignity, reconciling the agony of her exile with the warm comfort in the solitude of Valmikis ashrama (hermitage), and considering the forest as a happier place. In Sudha Gopalakrishnans moving translation, Sitas transformative self-realisation meant a detached engagement, bordering on compassion, and withdrawal from the world:

Do not worry, daughter! With the sages soothing words, gazing only at his feet,

She walked on, her face bent downwards, and reached the royal assembly;

Wordlessly, she went to him, saw her husband deeply drowned in remorse,

Amidst the royal gathering, and in this manner, she relinquished the world.

The last chapter by Thomas Hunter highlights the deep connection between text and recitation with reference to the art of reading and interpreting the Kakawin Ramayana in Bali to an audience gathered in club-like community groups, called Sekaha Mabasan. The stories recorded in textual sources are brought to life in masked dramas such as the Wayang Wong, devoted to the magically powerful characters of Rama and Sita. The narrations and performance in Mabasan clubs have led to a cultural reawakening and negotiation of Balinese identity in the context of tradition and modernity intersecting each other.

The representations of Ramayana stories in theatre, puppetry and folk practices are dealt with in great depth in the third section of the book on performance cultures. Paula Richman, the veteran scholar of Ramayana studies, offers an interesting discussion of a couple of early modern and modern plays, which present Ravana in a sympathetic light, illuminating aspects seldom emphasised in Rama-centric narratives: a late 18th-century Kathakali play in mixed Malayalam and Sanskrit, Ravanodhbhavam (The Origins of Ravana) by Kallaikulangara Raghava Pisharoty (1725-1799), and a mid-20th century Tamil mythological drama, Ilankesawaram (King of Lanka), performed to perfection for nearly 50 years by Lakshmi Narasimha Manohar (1925-2006). Together, the plays offer an alternative political lens, commending Ravanas rule as centralised, but egalitarian, Ravanarajya, and departing from the conventional Ramarajya, without demeaning varna- and dharma-bound Rama.

Further departures are to be seen in Ghulam-Sarwar Yousofs discussion of the Malay Shadow play, Wayang Kulit Kelantan, said to be based on an oral version of the Ramayana from the north-eastern state of Kelantan on the Malay Peninsula, named Hikayat Maharaja [Ra]Wana (Story of King Ravana). These may be read in conjunction with the Malay-Indonesian Hikayat Seri Rama (Story of Sri Ram), among other Southeast Asian versions of the Ramayana storieswhich in turn were informed by imports of several versions of episodes from the Rama saga, not only from Valmikis Ramayana, but also Krttivasas Ramayana (15th century) and Tulsidas Ramacharitmanas (16th century). An interesting strand of the story analysed by Yousof narrates Ravanas misconduct in the Sky kingdom, which led to his banishment to earth and landing in Lanka, where he spent his time in penance. The Prophet Adam, who is sent down to Lanka by Allah, happens to meet Ravana. Adam intercedes on Ravanas behalf for his forgiveness and permission to become the ruler of three parts of the world, with the fourth reserved for Adams own descendants. The story thus acquires a form relevant to popular Islam in the Malaysian archipelago.

The next two chapters look at the versions of the epic in Kannada. Krishna Murthy Hanuru examines how different folk performatives, which popularised the Ramayana tradition by bringing it from palace to streets and bylanes, departed from the classic Sanskrit epic to suit the ideals of the folk world. This meant varying emphasis in the processes of idealisation and demonisation. Revealing complex relationships between classical traditions and the beliefs and aspirations of the common people, some folk performances tended to contradict widely held views on virtues associated with Rama and Sita, and yet others idealised the character of Hanuman.

In the next chapter, Purushottama Bilimale, a distinguished scholar of Kannada folk and literary traditions, highlights the creative processes and improvisations by composers, musicians actors and audience in the staging of the Yakshagana of coastal Karnataka. In Bilimales words, together they continually recreate, redefine, communicate and appropriate episodes from the Ramayana.

The last chapter by Sirang Leng takes us across the ocean again for a discussion of the adoption of the Ramayana in Reamker performances, meant for both ritual invocations and entertainment in Cambodian Khmer society, where sculptures and inscriptions relating to the Ramayana are observed from as early as the 6th/7th century.

Also read: Hindutva is not the same as Hinduism

The history of Reamker performance dates back to the 16th century, with its popularity ranging from the high elite to ordinary folkscatering to the spiritual and social needs of the people, besides their entertainment quotients. The chapters on wide reception of performance cultures also reminded this reviewer of the excellent work of Philip Lutgendorf in the field and his translation and edition of Tulsidas Ramacharitmanas as well as the more recent work of Molly Kaushal, documenting local and tribal Ramlilas.

The Indian Sufi appreciation of versions of narratives around the ethical figure of Sri Ram of Ayodhya, from the 15th-16th century, also add interesting dimensions to the common pool of literary and devotional resources around the cult of Rama. The devotional compositions of Sufi-Sant Kabir and of Malik Muhammad Jaisi of Padmavat fame come to mind immediately as examples of Sufi adaptations of Sita-Rama narratives. The same is true for the older Jaina traditions.

In conclusion, plurality and inclusiveness mark the enduring feature of the history of diverse Ramayana traditions traversing over two millennia and across wide geographical locations. The remarkable contributions to this significant volume have brought together many of the multifaceted features of the epic in South India and Southeast Asia. A sequel volume focussing on northern parts of the subcontinent, including Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan, will bring forth several other dimensions of the Rama stories. As Parul Pandya Dhar writes in her introduction:

Categories of intrinsic and extrinsic, change and continuity, classical and vernacular, and parts and whole offer useful perspectives to unravel the epics multivalence. As it flows and adapts in varied contexts, its unique identity as a mahakavya (great poem) sustains even as it merges in a stream of continuous change. This assimilative power, with its diverse and plural renderings, is also its soul and strength.

This reminds us of the heated debate on the value of the outstanding work of scholars such as A.K. Ramanujan and Paula Richman on many traditions of Ramayana. As the annual Dussehra celebrations and current research illustrate, imaginative and powerful new tellings continue to be created, and the ways of perceiving them are many as well. Thus, to privilege any monolithic or exclusive reading of the vast traditions of the Ramayana is antithetical to its very essence. Let a thousand and one Ramayanas flourish!

Raziuddin Aquil is Professor of History in the University of Delhi.

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Book Review: 'The Multivalence of an Epic' retells the many Ramayanas of South India and Southeast Asia - Frontline

Mehbooba said those who want to do mob lynching in the name of religion.those who indulge in Hindu-Muslim communalism can be compared with ISIS

People Democratic Party (PDP) president Mehbooba Mufti holds a meeting with party workers at party office in Jammu on Saturday. (PTI)

Amid controversy over senior Congress leader Salman Khurshids new book on Ayodhya, Peoples Democratic Party (PDP) president and former Jammu and Kashmir chief minister Mehbooba Mufti compared the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) with the Islamic State (ISIS).

Talking to mediapersons here on Saturday, Mufti said, The real Sanatan Dharma doesnt teach us communalism... it is Jan Sangh and BJP, who want to make people fight against each other in the name of communalism. So, they have hijacked Hindutva and Hinduism in the name of their parties.

She further said, They feel that Hindutva and Hinduism is BJP and RSS, which is not the case.

She also referred to Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, a Sanskrit phrase found in Hindu texts such as the Maha Upanishad, which means the world is one family.

Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, which means the entire world is one family and Sanatan Dharma teach us that but what the BJP and the RSS are teaching the people is neither Hinduism nor Hindutva, she said.

To a query, she said, Undoubtedly, we can compare communal parties with ISIS those who want to do mob lynching in the name of religion.those who indulge in Hindu-Muslim communalism can be compared with anyone because both of them kill people in the name of religion.

A paragraph in Salman Khurshids new book Sunrise Over Ayodhya: Nationhood in Our Times, read, Sanatan Dharma and classical Hinduism known to sages and saints were being pushed aside by a robust version of Hindutva, by all standards a political version similar to the jihadist Islam of groups like ISIS and Boko Haram of recent years.

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Mehbooba compares BJP, RSS with ISIS - Hindustan Times

New Delhi: On the strength of a minor increase in food costs, as well as high gasoline and commodity prices, India's October retail inflation increased sequentially. The Consumer Price Index (CPI) increased to 4.48 percent last month from 4.35 percent in September 2021, according to statistics provided by the National Statistical Office. However, the increase in retail inflation last month was slower than the 7.61 percent increase reported in October 2020.

The macroeconomic data is significant because retail inflation remained well within the Reserve Bank of India's target range of 2-6 percent for the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Last month, the CPI Urban increased to 5.04 percent from 4.57 percent in September, while the CPI Rural decreased to 4.07 percent from 4.13 percent. According to NSO data, the Consumer Food Price Index climbed at a pace of 0.85 percent last month, up from 0.68 percent in September. The CFPI data are used to track changes in food retail prices.

Pulses and goods prices increased by 5.42 percent year over year in October 2021, according to the CPI. Furthermore, meat and fish prices increased by 7.12 percent, while eggs decreased by 1.38 percent. Despite this, the overall price of food and beverages increased by 1.82 percent, while the price of oils and fats increased by 33.50 percent.

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