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A tribe is viewed, historically or developmentally, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states. Many anthropologists used the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups (see clan and kinship).

Some theorists hold that tribes represent a stage in social evolution intermediate between bands and states. Other theorists argue that tribes developed after, and must be understood in terms of their relationship to, states.

'Tribe' is a contested term due to its roots in colonial anthropological foundations and the connotations that these hierarchical definitions have. To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the terms 'ethnic group', or nation instead.

In 242240 BC, the Tribal Assembly (comitia tributa) in the Roman Republic was organized in 35 Tribes (four "Urban Tribes" and 31 "Rural Tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek phyle "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew or "sceptre". In the historical sense, "tribe," "race" and "clan" can be used interchangeably.

Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. This partly stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some reflects more general controversy over cultural evolution and colonialism. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "natural", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, it was believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "nation". Anthropological and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.

Anthropologist Elman Service presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of social inequality and the role of the state. This system of classification contains four categories:

# Gatherer-hunter bands, which are generally egalitarian. # Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of social rank and prestige (see Chiefdom). # Stratified tribal societies led by chieftains. # Civilizations, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.

In his 1975 study, The Notion of the Tribe, anthropologist Morton H. Fried provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.

Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak leadership, that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities.

In some countries, such as the United States of America and India, tribes are polities that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.

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The parable of the Lapat system of Tubo

Although students were away on Spring Break, learning didnt stop at Kansas City Kansas Community College this week.

More than 100 staff members were treated to life skills and lifetime lessons in an inspirational hour-long Staff Senate program presented by Mary Bichelmeyer Lucas, the Chief Resource Officer for Staff Mark, one of the nations largest and most successful staff companies.

Lucas is also the author of the highly-acclaimed book, Lunchmeat & Life Lessons: Sharing a Butchers Wisdom, which debuted in 2006 and now is in its 10th printing.

One of 10 children of Mary and John Bichelmeyer, Lucas recounted many of the lessons learned from her father as the successful owner of Bichelmeyer Meats in Kansas City, Kan.

Some of those lessons:

Other members of the committee for the personal development program were Maggie McCoy, Assistant Director and Transition Specialist in the Nursing Division; Lori Chaffin, Administrative Assistant to the Dean of the Technical Education Center; and Doris Holleman, Director of the Campus Child Care Center.

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PHOTO: Mary Lucas (center), the author of the book Lunchmeat & Lifetime Lessons, got a chance to spend time with two nieces, Julia (left) and Kathy Bichelmeyer, prior to presenting a personal development program at KCKCC Wednesday, (KCKCC Photo by Alan Hoskins)

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KCKCC staff uses spring break for personal development

ONE of the core values of the Ten Outstanding Students of the Philippines-CAR is professional-academic excellence made relevant to the regions development. Equipped only with the commitment to contribute to nation-building, they exemplify relevance as they also journey in personal development.

Paul Joseph A. Nuval, TOSP-CAR 2010 and presently a research technical support staff of the Department of Agriculture Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources-CAR, will be graduating next month with a Master in Development Communication degree from the BSU Open University. His adviser is Dr. Lita Colting. He shares with us his study abstract that associates the richness of the indigenous culture in the Cordillera with contemporary challenges of our society.

His study Lapat System as an IKSP of the Maeng Tribe of Tubo, Abra: A Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in Fisheries Resource Management determined effective governing practices of the Lapat system; ascertained how these practices aid the community in adapting to climate change; verified the process of integration of the Lapat system into the Ancestral Domain Sustainable Development Protection Plan (ADSDPP) of the municipality; and identified the perceived challenges in the promotion and implementation of the Lapat system.

Lapat system refers to the indigenous resource management system of the Maeng Tribe of Tubo in managing the natural resources within their Ancestral Domain. The purpose of the practice is to regulate, protect, and conserve the use of resources and its biodiversity.

The implementation of the Lapat follows three steps: information dissemination; performance of ritual called bagawas; and the observance of the Lapat. All the community members act as forest guards and when violations are committed, that is the time when the barangay council, TULAS, and Dap-ay come into play. Rituals involved are performed as indigenous disciplinary measure for violators.

Based on the findings, the characteristics of Lapat that can be an adaptation strategy for climate change relates to the regulation and prohibition of the harvesting of forest and water by-products to maintain its biodiversity. Also, the study narrates the interrelationship of the human responses to Lapat system such as to human activities, felt and/or observed climatic changes, to their biodiversitys inventory.

Further, the study underscored Lapat system and the three encapsulating concepts: IP rights over land and resources; protection of biodiversity; and the ecosystem-based approach. These three concepts converge as a potent climate change adaptation measure. The perceived effects of climate change to fisheries according to the fisherfolk respondents were traced to rainfall, river levels and flows, temperature structure, and water parameters. The impacts of these climatic changes were determined in the bio-physiological, migration pattern, reproduction, and metabolism of the fish species.

In adapting climate change in fisheries resource management the study revealed that the Lapat system affects and impacts production, ecosystems, farming systems, communities, and wider society and economy.

Regarding the process of IKSP integration in the ADSDPP of the municipality, the community followed the project development cycle in creating and formulating the ADSDPP from planning, design and development, implementation, to evaluation. Three significant effects of the ADSDPP were noted in the study: protection of cultural integrity; stronger community dynamics; and strengthened environmental protection. The study recommends that the LGUs continue involving the IPs and their leaders in policy making, governance, and implementation of projects as it was established that this increased the community participation and maintained the cultural integrity of the Maeng Tribe.

Lastly, other municipalities can adapt the process done by the Maeng Tribe-Tubo in integrating the IKSP of the community into formal policies and/or in the ADSDPP to ensure that community participation is valued and the elders are still given key roles in decision-making.

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Guinaran: The parable of the Lapat system of Tubo